The Curse if of Oak Island is the Lei of the Standing fire,
in replicated degree what is the school of Sheol,
as Eknock gives way!!
Owe for the Frank in Cents in Mur,
made man,
Protect & Serve,
this is the P.O.E. lease,
other wise known As the Cops,
a port of entry,
Mermaid??
a cradle that creation buy design costs ewe everything should the Towns born sit a Zen,
as X why and truth navigates towards a shoring,
Tim. burr Acts and Proverbs come to mind Inn a Hymn knoll,
the Sir Men awn the mount!!
Owe for the Frank in Cents in Mur,
made man,
Protect & Serve,
this is the P.O.E. lease,
other wise known As the Cops,
a port of entry,
Mermaid??
a cradle that creation buy design costs ewe everything should the Towns born sit a Zen,
as X why and truth navigates towards a shoring,
Tim. burr Acts and Proverbs come to mind Inn a Hymn knoll,
the Sir Men awn the mount!!
Does the ample be electric or are the Stars the sun,
at sunset in a flat world the oh pen deck?,
should the ancient ole Wonders of the Earth be Trek,
would the land in price back Silk Trade roads to mapped.
As myth is of all lo gee and North is of ice,
did the practice make purring to cat out that tight,
does Mar bowls answer with Plu tow be guise,
a map ping to ray D.A.R.R. in vernacular Ship,
what THIP would counter to gal lip be cure.
A Siren in Mystery the Sounds on lagoon,
a lake to the Fire is the basis be friend,
thicker ice that biscuit to role like a shed,
Iceland did Greenland on a bigger bee Earth!!
Did Greece move Olympus as Games for the Tread stone would at not be Cheese,
The Wheel of Chess to reality Bee'd,
a honey in nectar the brass in the balls,
now on that dear Continent is the Riches in falls?,
no.
The marble the carved that mountain in scope,
what is the vista that makes county just lope,
match to Olympic and Number the vote,
Rome would be Men and Chalice be soaked??
Of oil be token to dig in the boom,
as gas out leaned did the ground just be grown,
thereby the Ocean.
Now for the Tides that envelope this Earth,
an Equator for belt a Cosmic desired,
the shores of the sea turtle those warn wholes of tow,
under the glacier does blue settle cleared.
How the Ships in the Lanes of now Airplanes and traffic,
reach down in that Ireland magic,
for David Bowie did deal on the first in the Music,
long horn to dancing the froth in at magic?,
nigh the hour for science and study,
the Charts.
Of oil be token to dig in the boom,
as gas out leaned did the ground just be grown,
thereby the Ocean.
Now for the Tides that envelope this Earth,
an Equator for belt a Cosmic desired,
the shores of the sea turtle those warn wholes of tow,
under the glacier does blue settle cleared.
How the Ships in the Lanes of now Airplanes and traffic,
reach down in that Ireland magic,
for David Bowie did deal on the first in the Music,
long horn to dancing the froth in at magic?,
nigh the hour for science and study,
the Charts.
A magnitude to the cross of that bridge,
in salt the water?,
brine makes it's starter,
guide to a Panama canal with a thought,
lift it a four way stop in the city of what,
not on the chopping waves tucking height,
it is to cut the fire cross the gulp and lift the gates to the width of a tired.
Sit on that simple Space in a think,
wormholes are in the black thicket of fence,
as the one channels through it grasps to the flutter,
again the connection is from where the deep blue shown.
Weight a second,
I thought more for the blow holes on that strange and simple run of oil on the fire wurm,
dot, dot, dot,
believe S.F.O. as air-traffic Controllers will advise you of the pull of air-pockets,
than upon landing what is the difference as the touch of water to the ink of said.
Mount Olympus
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| Mount Olympus | |
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Mount Olympus
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| Highest point | |
| Elevation | 2,917 m (9,570 ft) [1] |
| Prominence | 2,355 m (7,726 ft) [2] |
| Isolation | 254 kilometres (158 mi) |
| Listing | Country high point Ultra |
| Coordinates | 40°05′08″N 22°21′31″ECoordinates: 40°05′08″N 22°21′31″E |
| Geography | |
 
Mount Olympus
Location of Mount Olympus
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| Location | Greece |
| Parent range | Macedonia and Thessaly, near the Gulf of Salonika |
| Climbing | |
| First ascent | 2 August 1913 Christos Kakalos, Frederic Boissonnas and Daniel Baud-Bovy |
Mount Olympus (/oʊˈlɪmpəs, ə-/;[3] Greek: Όλυμπος [ˈolimbos] or [ˈolibos]; also transliterated as Olympos, and on Greek maps, Oros Olympos) is the highest mountain in Greece. It is located in the Olympus Range on the border between Thessaly and Macedonia, between the regional units of Pieria and Larissa, about 80 km (50 mi) southwest from Thessaloniki. Mount Olympus has 52 peaks, deep gorges, and exceptional biodiversity.[4] The highest peak, Mytikas, meaning "nose", rises to 2,917 metres (9,570 ft).[1] It is one of the highest peaks in Europe in terms of topographic prominence.[2]
Olympus was notable in Greek mythology as the home of the Greek gods, on the Mytikas peak. Mount Olympus is also noted for its very rich flora, with several species. It has been a National Park, the first in Greece, since 1938. It is also a World's Biosphere Reserve.[1]
Every year, thousands of people visit Olympus to admire its fauna and flora, tour its slopes, and reach its peaks. Organized mountain refuges and various mountaineering and climbing routes are available to visitors who want to explore it. The usual starting point is the town of Litochoro, on the eastern foothills of the mountain, 100 km from Thessaloniki, where, in the beginning of every summer, the Olympus Marathon terminates.[5]
Contents
[hide]Geography[edit]
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The shape of Olympus was formed by rain and wind, which produced an isolated tower almost 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) above the sea, which is only 18 kilometres (11 mi) away at Litochoro. Olympus has many peaks and an almost circular shape. The mountain has a circumference of 150 kilometres (93 mi), an average diameter of 26 kilometres (16 mi), and 600 square kilometres (230 sq mi) of area. To the northwest lies the Vlach village of Kokkinoplou. The Makryrema stream separates Olympus from the massif of Voulgara. The villages Petra, Vrontou and Dion lie to the northwest, while on the eastern side there is the town of Litochoro, where Enipeas bisects the massif of Olympus. On its southeastern side, the Ziliana gorge divides Mount Olympus from Kato Olympos (Lower Olympus), while on its southwestern foothills, there are the villages Sykaminea and Karya. The Agia Triada Sparmou Monastery and the village Pythion lie to the west. Olympus' dry foothills are known as the Xirokampi, containing chaparral and small animals. Further east, the plain of Dion is fertile and watered by the streams which originate on Olympus.
Geology[edit]
Mount Olympus is formed of sedimentary rock laid down 200 million years ago in a shallow sea. Various geological events that followed caused the emergence of the whole region and the sea. Around one million years ago glaciers covered Olympus and created its plateaus and depressions. With the temperature rise that followed, the ice melted and the streams that were created swept away large quantities of crushed rock in the lowest places, forming the alluvial fans, that spread out all over the region from the foothills of the mountain to the sea.[1]
Morphology[edit]
The complicated geological past of the region is obvious from the morphology of Olympus and its National Park. Features include deep gorges and dozens of smooth peaks, many of them in altitude of more than 2,000 metres (6,600 ft), including Aghios Antonios (2,815 metres (9,236 ft)), Kalogeros (2,700 metres (8,900 ft)), Toumpa (2,801 metres (9,190 ft)) and Profitis Ilias (2,803 metres (9,196 ft)). However, it is the central, almost vertical, rocky peaks, that impress the visitor. Over the town of Litochoro, on the horizon, the relief of the mountain displays an apparent V, between two peaks of almost equal height. The left limb is the peak named Mytikas (or Pantheon - 2,918 metres (9,573 ft)). It is Greece's highest peak. Then, on the right is Stefani (or Thronos Dios [Throne of Zeus - 2,902 metres (9,521 ft)]), which presents the most impressive and steep peak of Olympus, with its last sharply rising 200 meters presenting the greatest challenge for climbers. Further south, Skolio (second highest peak - 2,912 metres (9,554 ft)) completes an arc of about 200 degrees, with its steep slopes forming on the west side, like a wall, an impressive precipitous amphitheatrical cavity, 700 metres (2,300 ft) in depth and 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) in circumference, the 'Megala Kazania'. On the east side of the high peaks the steep slopes form zone like parallel folds, the 'Zonaria'. Even narrower and steeper scorings, the 'Loukia', lead to the peak.[citation needed]
Οn the north side, between Stefani and Profitis Ilias, extends the Muses' Plateau, at 2,550 metres (8,370 ft), while further south, almost in the center of the massif, extends the alpine tundra region of Bara, at an altitude of 2,350 metres (7,710 ft). Olympus has numerous ravines and gullies. Most distinguishable of the ravines are those of Mavrologos-Enipeas (14 km) and Mavratzas-Sparmos (13 km) near Bara and 'cut' the massif in two oval portions. On the southern foothills the great gorge of Ziliana, 13 km long, consists of a natural limit that separates the mountain from Lower Olympus. There are also many precipices and a number of caves, even nowadays unexplored. The form and layout of the rocks favor the emergence of numerous springs, mainly lower than 2,000 m, of small seasonal lakes and streams and of a small river, Enipeas, with its springs in the site Prionia and its estuary in the Aegean Sea.[citation needed]
Religion and mythology[edit]
In Ancient Greek religion and mythology, Olympus was the home of the Twelve Olympian gods of the ancient Greek world.[6] It is the setting of many stories in Greek religions and myth. The Twelve Olympian gods lived in the gorges, where there were also their palaces. Pantheon (today Mytikas) was their meeting place and theater of their stormy discussions. The Throne of Zeus (today Stefani) hosted solely him, the leader of the gods. From there he unleashed his thunderbolts, expressing his divine wrath. In Pieria, at Olympus's northern foot, the mythological tradition had placed the nine Muses, patrons of the Fine Arts, daughters of Zeus and the Titanide Mnemosyne.[citation needed]
History[edit]
According to several sources, including here, Mt Olympus was originally named Mount Belus. The history of Olympus has been turbulent, as its surrounding area was not only a sacred shrine but also a battlefield for the control of the access from Thessaly to Macedonia in ancient times. In the period of the Ottoman Empire the mountain was a hiding place and base of operations for klephts and armatoloi.[1]
In Olympus, the second armatoliki was founded, led by Kara Michalis in 1489. The action of the klephts in Olympus led the Turks to visit their outrage on the klephts' ally-village of Milia (in the late 17th century), which they destroyed. In that period Livadi in Olympus became the seat of the armatoliki of Olympus and Western Macedonia, with their first renowned commander Panos Zidros. In the 18th century the Turks had to replace the armatoloi (who very often joined the klephts) with Moslem Albanian armatoloi who ravaged the countryside of Macedonia. However, Olympus' armatoloi, even after their capitulation to Ali Pasha, never ceased fighting on land and at sea. Among them who were active there and in nearby regions were Nikotsaras, Giorgakis Olympios and the legendary family of Lazaioi. In the early 20th century, even for some time after the liberation from the Ottoman Empire (1912), robbers were active in the region - the best known of them the notorious Giagoulas, while during the German invasion in 1941 the Greek army fought significant battles along with units of New Zealanders and Australians. During the German Occupation (1941 - 1944) the mountain was one of the centers of the Greek Resistance, while a little later the Greek Civil War (1946–49) started there, in Litochoro.[citation needed]
Climbing expeditions[edit]
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Ancient Greeks likely never tried to climb Olympus' peaks Pantheon and the Throne of Zeus (currently called Mytikas and Stefani respectively), which they considered to be the Twelve Olympians' home. But surely they reached the nearest peak, nowadays called Aghios Antonios, from where they had a view of the two peaks and where they left offerings, as recent archaeological findings indicate. In the modern era, a series of explorers tried to study the mountain and to reach, unsuccessfully, its summit. Examples include the French archaeologist Leon Heuzey (1855), the German explorer Heinrich Barth (1862), and the German engineer Edward Richter. Richter tried to reach the summit in 1911 but was abducted by Klephts, who also killed the Ottoman Gendarmes that accompanied him.
It was just one year after the liberation of Greece from Ottoman rule, on 2 August 1913, that the until then untrodden summit of Olympus was finally reached. The Swiss Frédéric Boissonnas and Daniel Baud-Bovy, aided by a hunter of wild goats from Litochoro, Christos Kakalos, were the first to reach Greece's highest peak. Kakalos, who had much experience climbing Olympus, was the first of the three to climb Mytikas. Afterwards and till his death (1976) he was the official guide of Olympus. In 1921, he and Marcel Kurz reached the second highest summit of Olympus, Stefani. Based on these explorations, Kurz in 1923 edited Le Mont Olympe, a book that includes the first detailed map of the summits. In 1928, the painter Vasilis Ithakisios climbed Olympus together with Kakalos, reaching a cave that he named Shelter of the Muses, and he spent many summers painting views of the mountain. Olympus was later photographed and mapped in detail by others, and a series of successful climbings and winter ascents of the steepest summits in difficult weather conditions took place.
Climbing Mount Olympus is a non-technical hike, except for the final section from the Skala summit to the Mytikas peak, which is a YDS class 3 rock scramble. It is estimated that 10,000 people climb Mount Olympus each year, most of them reaching only the Skolio summit. Most climbs of Mount Olympus start from the town of Litochoro, which took the name City of Gods because of its location at the foot of the mountain. From there a road goes to Prionia, where the hike begins at the bottom of the mountain.
Ancient and medieval sites[edit]
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The whole region of Pieria's Olympus was declared archaeological and historical site for the preservation of its monumental and historical character. Five km away from the sea is Dion, sacred city of the ancient Macedons, dedicated to Zeus and the Twelve Olympians. Its prosperity lasted from the 5th century B.C. to the 5th century A.D. The excavations, continuing since 1928, have revealed numerous findings of the Macedonian, the Hellenistic and the Roman period. Currently there is a unique archaeological park of 200 hectares, with the ancient town and the sacred places of worship, outside its walls. Many statues and other invaluable items are kept in the nearby Dion's museum. Pimblia and Leivithra, two other towns in Olympus' region, are related to Orpheus and the "Orphic" mysteries. According to a tradition Orpheus, son of Apollo and Calliope (one of the Muses), taught here the mystic ceremonies of worship of Dionysus (also known as Bacchus). By the sea, in a strategic position, at Macedonia's gates is located Platamon Castle, built between 7th and 10th century A.D. in the ancient town of Heracleia. To the north the ancient Pydna is located. Here, in 168 BC, the decisive battle between the Macedonians and the Romans took place. Between Pydna and Mount Olympus is a fortified bishops seat from the Bycantine aera called Louloudies.
Christian monuments[edit]
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In Olympus' region there are also several Christian monuments, among them the highest-altitude chapel of Orthodox Christianity, that of Profitis Ilias, on the summit of the same name (2,803 m). It was built in the 16th century by Saint Dionysios of Olympus, who also founded the most significant monastery in the region. The Old Monastery of Dionysios (altitude 820 m) lies in Enipeas' gorge and is accessible by car from Litochoro. It was looted and burned by the Ottomans and in 1943 it was destroyed by the German invaders, who suspected it was a guerilla den. Nowadays it has been partially restored and operates as a dependency of the New Monastery of Dionysios, that is outside Litochoro. On Olympus' southern foot, in a dominant position (820 m) in Ziliana gorge, there is the Kanalon Monastery, 8 km away from Karya. It was founded in 1055 by the monks Damianos and Joakim and since 2001 it has been restored and operates as a convent. Further west, in the edge of Mavratza stream, at 1,020 m, there is the Agia Triada Sparmou Monastery, that flourished in the early 18th century, possessed great property and assisted to establish the famous Tsaritsani' school. It was abandoned in 1932, but in 2000 it was completely renovated and reopened as a male monastery, affiliated to Elassona's diocese.
Climate[edit]
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Generally speaking Olympus' climate can be described as one of mediterranean type with continental influence. Its local variations is the result of the impact of the sea and the rugged relief of the region. In the lower locations (Litochoro and the foothills) the climate is typically mediterranean, i.e. hot and dry in the summer, while humid and cold in the winter. Higher it is more humid and severe, with more intense phenomena ; in these locations it often snows all over the winter, while raining and snowing is not unusual, even in the summer. The temperature varies in the winter from -10 °C to 10 °C and in the summer from 0 °C to 20 °C, while winds are an almost everyday occurrence. Generally the temperature falls 1 °C per 200 m of altitude. As the altitude rises, the phenomena are more intense and the variations of temperature and humidity are often sudden. The coastal northeast slopes of Olympus receive more rain than the continental northwest, so, as a result, there is a clear difference in vegetation. being more abundant in the first of them. Hottest month is August, while coldest is February.
The mountain's highest zone, over 2,000 metres, is snowcapped for about nine months (September to May). In some places the winds gather snow, 8–10 metres thick, ('anemosouria' in Greek), while in some deep ravines the snow is maintained all over the year (everlasting snow). For this Olympus' alpine region, recordings have been made in the 1960s in the highest-altitude weather station in Greece, that was established on the summit of Aghios Antonios (2,815 m), providing a number of interesting data for the mountain's climate. Τhe average temperature is -5 °C in winter and 10 °C in summer. The average annual precipitation heights vary from 149 cm at Prionia (1,100 m) to 170 cm at Aghios Antonios, about half of them rainfall and hailstorms in summer and the rest snowfall in winter. The weather may change several times in the same day. In summer rainfalls are frequent, commonly as evening thunderstorms, many times accompanied by hail and strong winds. However water springs over 2,000 metres are scarce and visitors should ensure that they have always water and of course the necessary clothing for any weather conditions.
Flora[edit]
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The research of Olympus' plants started in 1836, when the French botanist Αυcher - Εlογ studied them. According to this and later studies, the National Park of Olympus is considered one of the richest flora regions in Greece, with about 1,700 species and subspecies, that represent some 25% of Greek flora. Of them 187 are characterized as significant, 56 are Greek endemic and of them 23 are local endemic, i.e. they can be found only in Olympus, and 16 are rare in Greece or/and have there the limits of their spread within Northern Greece.
Most of those found in lower altitude are the common Mediterranean and central European species. Jankaea heldreichii, a plant relic of the Ice age, is of particular interest for the botanists. Τhe intense diversity of the landscape, the varying orientation of the slopes and their position in relation to the sea affect locally Olympus' climate and so a local microclimate prevails, combined with the geological background and the soil favor the growth of particular vegetation types and biotopes. Generally Olympus' northeast side is densely forested, as it receives the most rainfall, while the southwest one has significantly sparser vegetation. Moreover, there is a clear sequence of the vegetation zones in accordance to altitude, in Olympus there is no such a regularity. It is due to the great microclimate variety, caused by the region's landscape.
Flora zones[edit]
In Olympus there are generally four sequent flora zones, but not clearly separated:
Mediterranean vegetation zone[edit]
In the altitude between 300 and 500 metres occurs the evergreen broadleaf trees' zone (maquis). Along with oak (Quercus ilex) and Greek strawberry tree there occur kermes oak, strawberry tree, Phillyrea latifolia, bay laurel, cedar and others. Of the deciduous species most common are flaxinus ulmus, Montpellier maple, Judas tree, terebinth, Cotinus coggygria and others.
Forest zone of beech, fir and mountain coniferous[edit]
The evergreen broadleaf trees' zone is gradually replaced by ecosystems of European black pine, that forms compact clusters, with no intermediate zone of deciduous oaks, although trees of these species occur sporadically within clusters of black pine. On the northern slopes of Xirolakos valley, at altitude between 600 and 700 metres, there is a high forest of downy oak of about 120 hectares.
Τhe black pine dominates on the eastern and northern side of the mountain, between 500 and 1,700 metres. In this zone there is also hybrid fir in small groups and scrubs or small clumps, particularly in the lower region and in the sites Naoumi (west) and Stalamatia and Polykastro (east), where it is mixed with black pine and Bosnian pine. In this zone there is also beech. While in the neighboring mountains Pierians and Ossa it creates an extended vegetation zone, in Olympus it is restricted to small clusters, appearing as islets, mainly in more humid locations and the best soils. A particularly rich variety of trees and shrubs is found in Enipeas' gorge. One can see there elm, cherry plum, European yew, hazel, holly, cornus mas, manna ash, maple and a considerable variety of herbaceous plants. Gorges and ravines are covered by oriental planes, willows, black alders and riverside greenery.
Boreal coniferous zone[edit]
Typical species of this zone is Bosnian pine. This rare kind of pine occurs sporadically higher than 1,000 metres and gradually replaces the black pine, while over 1,400 metres it creates an almost unmixed forest. Οver 2,000 metres the forest becomes sparser, reaching to 2,750 metres, thus creating the highest forest limit (highest limit of forest growth) in the Balkans, or even in Europe. Another feature of this zone is that over 2,500 metres the trees appear in a crawling form. The region, where Bosnian pine grows, is mostly dry and its slopes are rocky. There are no springs or water streams. The vegetation growing there is adapted to specific local conditions and represented by typical shrubs, graminaceous, chasmophytes etc., while the flora includes many endemic species of the Balkans.
No forest high mountains' zone (Alpine tundra)[edit]
Beyond Bosnian pine's zone follows an extensive zone, without trees, with alpine meadows, consisted by a mosaic of grassland ecosystems, depending on the topography, the slope and the orientation of the ground. In general, this alpine flora with more than 150 plant species, contains snow accumulation meadows, grassy swamps, alpine scree and rock crevices. On the meadows, the rocks and the steep slopes live most of the endemic Olympus' plants, among them some of the most beautiful wildflowers in Greece. Half of them are found only in the Balkans and 23 only in Olympus and nowhere else.
Olympus' endemic plants[edit]
- Achillea ambrosiaca
- Alyssum handelii
- Asprerula muscosa
- Aubrieta thessala
- Campanula oreadum
- Carum adamovicii
- Centaurea incompleta
- Centaurea litochorea
- Centaurea transiens
- Cerastrium theophrasti
- Erysimum olympicum
- Festuca olympica
- Genίsta sakellariadis
- Jankaea heldreichii
- Ligusticum olympicum
- Melampyrum ciliatum
- Poa thessala
- Potentilla deorum
- Rynchosinapis nivalis
- Silene dionysii
- Silene oligantha
- Veronica thessalica
- Viola striis - notata
Fauna[edit]
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Οlympus' fauna, that has not been systematically studied so far, includes considerable variety and is marked by important, rare and endangered species. Large mammals, that lived formerly in the region, like deer, have disappeared. In ancient times there were lions (Pausanias), while at least until the 16th century there were bears (Life of St. Dionysios the Later). There have been recorded 32 species of mammals, including wild goat (Rυρicapra rupicapra balcanica), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), wild boar (Sus scrofa), wildcat (Felis sylvestris), beech marten (Martes foina), red fox(vulpes vulpes) and red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris). There have also been detected 108 species of birds (like sparrowhawk, cinereous vulture, rock partridge, white stork, rock dove, European robin, lanner falcon, peregrine falcon, tree falcon, golden eagle, short-toed snake eagle, booted eagle and hoopoe). Many of them, particularly the birds of prey, are scarce. In addition there are the common reptiles of Greek fauna (22 species like snakes, turtles, lizards, etc.) and some amphibians (8 species) in streams and seasonal ponds, as well as a great variety of insects, particularly butterflies.
National Park[edit]
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Greece's highest mountain, dwelling of the Twelve Gods of antiquity, has been the first region in the country to be applied specific protective rules, by its declaration as a National Park in 1938. The aim of this declaration was ΄΄...the preservation in perpetuity of the natural environment of the region, i.e. of wild flora, fauna and natural landscape, as well as its cultural and other values...΄΄. In addition the declaration has aimed promoting scientific research along with environmental education for the public and tourist development in the region. Specific laws prohibit all forms of exploitation on the eastern side of the mountain in an area of about 4,000 hectares, that is the core of the Park. A wider region, around this core, has been designated ΄΄peripheral zone of the National Park΄΄, so that its managing and exploitation to be done so as not to adversely affect the core's protection. At present, the park has been expanded to 24,000 hectares. Administratively it belongs to Pieria's and Larissa's Prefectures and specifically to the municipalities Diou-Olympou and Katerinis (Pieria) and Τempon and Elassonas (Larissa). Its lowest altitude is 600 metres and its peak, Mytikas, at 2,918 metres. In 1981 UNESCO proclaimed Olympus ΄΄Biosphere Reserve΄΄. European Union has listed Olympus in the ΄΄Significant for Birdlife Regions of European Union΄΄. It is also registered in the list of Natura 2000 European Network as a special protection area and a site of Community interest.
Olympus' National Park's regulations[edit]
The Park is protected by specific legislation. Under the ΄΄Special Regulation΄΄ entrance to the Park is allowed only by the existing roads and traffic is allowed from sunrise to sunset only on formed paths. The visitor should also know that the following activities are not allowed :
- Entrance to children under 14 years unescorted.
- Parking in places other than the specific parking lots.
- Felling, humus transportation, rooting and collecting shrubs, plants and seeds.
- Hunting any animal by any means throughout the year.
- Collection and destruction of nests, eggs or chicks and general disturbance and destruction of fauna species.
- Damage to geological formations.
- Free movement of any animals accompanying visitors.
Access[edit]
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Olympus' massif is found about in the middle of Continental Greece and is easy to approach from the national railway network on the Athens-Thessaloniki line and the secondary roads that connect towns and villages around the mountain, with the principal base for excursions being the town of Litochoro, where there is are many hotels and taverns. In addition, on Pieria's coastal zone there are many camp sites and lodgings. The nearest international airport is that of Thessaloniki, and railway stations are those of Litochoro, Katerini and Leptokarya. There is frequent service by KTEL buses and a taxi stand is in Litochoro's central square.
- By air: Makedonia Airport in Thessaloniki, 80 km away from Katerini and 150 km from Elassona.
- By train: Athens-Leptokarya (regular line), Athens-Katerini (Intercity) and Thessaloniki-Litocoro (Suburban).
- By bus: Athens-Katerini (437 km), Thessaloniki-Katerini (68 km), Katerini-Litochoro (25 km), Athens-Larissa (354 km), Larissa-Elassona, Elassona-Kokkinopilos (22 km), Elassona-Karya (36 km).
- By car:
- To Litochoro via Road P.A.TH.E. (412 km away from Athens, 93 km from Thessaloniki).
- To Elassona via National Roads Athens-Larissa (354 km) and Larissa-Elassona (38 km).
- To Karya via road Larissa-Rodia-Sykaminea-Karya (48 km, 6 km of them dirt road).
- To Karya via Road P.A.TH.E. and road Leptokarya-Karya (24 km), or Neos Panteleimonas-Kallipefki-Karya (37 km).
- To Kokkinopilos from Elassona via road Katerini-Foteina-Elassona (46 km) or via forest road Foteina-Petra-Kokkinopilos.
Refuges[edit]
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- "Spilios Agapitos". The first and evener refuge of the region is at the site "Βalkoni" (or "Exostis") at 2,100 metres (6,900 ft) altitude, in the center of Mavrologos and belongs to Greek Federation of Mountaineering Club (E.O.O.S). Ιt provides 110 beds, water, electricity and telephone facilities, heating, blankets and a restaurant, managed by Maria Zolota and her husband Dionisis. It operates from May to October, 6-10 p.m.
- "Vrysopoules". The second refuge is westerly, behind Mavratzas' gorge at the site Vrysopoules (1,800 m) and is accessible also by car from location Sparmos. It is managed by Κ.Ε.Ο.Α.Χ (Army Skiers) since 1961. It provides 30 beds, a kitchen, water, electricity, central heating and a fireplace. It is open all year round, but to overnight a military license is required.
- "Christos Kakalos". Ιt is at the southwest edge of Muses' Plateau (2,648 m), belongs to Greek Federation of Mountaineering and Climbing (Ε.Ο.Ο.Α) that operates it from May to October and provides 18 beds, electricity, blankets, a kitchen and tank water. It is managed by one of the best experienced Greek climbers, the geologist Mihalis Stylas.
- "Stavros" ("Dimitrios Bountolas"). It is on Olympus' eastern side, 9.5 km on asphalt road away from Litochoro, at 930 metres (3,050 ft) altitude, in Dionysios Monastery forest. It belongs to the Greek Mountaineering Club of Thessaloniki, operates all year round, mainly as refreshment room and restaurant and can host 30 persons. It is managed by Doultsinou family.
- "Giosos Apostolidis". It is on Muses' Plateau (Diaselo - 2,760 m) and belongs to the Club of Greek mountaineers of Thessaloniki. It can accommodate 80 persons, it provides electricity, water, a fireplace and an equipped kitchen and it is open from June to October. It is managed by Dimitris Zorbas.
- "Petrostrouga". It is on the second, more common, path to Olympus (D10); it is the same path to reach to Muses' Plateau. Τhis refuge is at 1,900 metres (6,200 ft) altitude, surrounded by perennial Bosnian pines. It can accommodate 60 persons, it provides an equipped kitchen, electricity, water and a fireplace and it is open all year round. It is managed by the Hellenic Rescue Team. It provides organized medical equipment and one of the three emergency heliports in Olympus (the others at Skourta and Spilios Agapitos) and emergency wireless inside and out of the refuge.
Emergency refuges[edit]
- Aghios Antonios: emergency refuge on the summit Aghios Antonios (2,818 m). It is equipped with emergency items by the Hellenic Rescue Team. In the refuge there is wireless for communication in case of emergency.
- Kalyva tou Christaki: emergency refuge in ΄΄Megali Gourna΄΄ (2,430 m) along the Path E4, Kokinopilos - Skala. The refuge does not provide emergency items (there are only beds) but is only for protection from bad weather.
- Kakalos: emergency refuge at the "oropedio ton mouson"
It belongs to the Greek Mountaineering & Climbing Federation (www.eooa.gr) and is located at the eastern margin of the Plateau of Muses at an elevation of 2,650 metres (8,690 ft). It was named after Christos Kakalos the Olympus hunter and guide who together with the Swiss climbers Fred Boissonnas and Daniel Baud Bovy made the first recorded ascent to Olympus highest peak Mytikas on 2 August 1913. It has a capacity of 25 people and offers lodging, food and toilets. It is open from mid May to end of October and from December to mid April.
Coin[edit]
Mount Olympus and the national Park around it were selected as the main motif for the Greek National Park Olympus commemorative coin, minted in 2005.[citation needed]
On the reverse, the War of the Titans on Mount Olympus is portrayed along with flowering branches on the lower part of the coin. Above the scene is written, in Greek, "National Park Olympus".[citation needed]
The Curse of Oak Island
| The Curse of Oak Island | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Genre | Reality |
| Narrated by | Robert Clotworthy |
| Country of origin | Canada |
| Original language(s) | English |
| No. of seasons | 5 |
| No. of episodes | 49 |
| Production | |
| Executive producer(s) | Kevin Burns[1] |
| Camera setup | Multiple |
| Running time | 43 minutes |
| Production company(s) | Prometheus Entertainment[1] |
| Distributor | A&E Networks[1] |
| Release | |
| Original network | History Canada |
| Original release | January 5, 2014 – present |
| External links | |
| Website | www |
| Production website | www |
The Curse of Oak Island is a reality television[citation needed] series that premiered in Canada on History on January 5, 2014. According to the marketing of the show, the show "details the efforts of brothers Marty and Rick Lagina from Michigan in their attempt to solve the 220-year-old Oak Island mystery. Using modern technology and independent researchers[citation needed], they seek the treasure or historical artifacts believed[by whom?] to be buried on Oak Island off the coast of Nova Scotia, Canada".[2][3]
Contents
[hide]Overview[edit]
The Curse of Oak Island follows brothers Marty and Rick Lagina, originally from Kingsford, Michigan, through their efforts to find the speculated treasure or historical artifacts believed to be on Oak Island. The series discusses the history of the island, recent discoveries, theories, and prior attempts to investigate the site.[4] Areas of interest include the "Money Pit", Borehole 10-x, Smith's Cove, "Nolan's Cross", the "Hatch" and the "Swamp".
Background[edit]
The Lagina brothers became fascinated with the island after reading the January 1965 issue of Reader's Digest magazine that features an article on the Restall family's work to investigate the so-called "Money Pit".[5] Marty and his brother Rick obtained a controlling interest in Oak Island Tours, which reportedly owns most of the island. The brothers were later approached by Prometheus Entertainment to do a reality show. Rick and Marty have engaged the assistance of father-and-son Dan and Dave Blankenship, permanent residents of the island who have likewise been searching for treasure since the 1960s.[6]
Theories[edit]
The series explores various Oak Island theories through conversations with independent researchers. Persons featured have included Zena Halpern discussing her theory about North African gold and sharing copies of a French map of the island which she claims is dated 1347; J. Hutton Pulitzer discussing his theory of ancient mariner visitations; Petter Amundsen discussing his theory about codes hidden in Shakespearen literature and a secret project involving Sir Francis Bacon and the Rosicrucians; Daniel Ronnstam discussing his theory about the 90 foot stone being a dual cypher containing instructions as how to defeat the money pit flood tunnels with corn; authors Kathleen McGowen and Alen Butler discussing their theory involving the fabled Knights Templar treasure and an alleged relocation of historical religious artifacts to the island; and John O'Brien discussing his theory that the island contains treasures of the Aztec Empire.
Series overview[edit]
| Season | Episodes | Originally aired | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| First aired | Last aired | ||||
| 1 | 5 | January 5, 2014 | February 9, 2014 | ||
| 2 | 10 | November 4, 2014 | January 13, 2015 | ||
| 3 | 13 | November 10, 2015 | February 2, 2016 | ||
| 4 | 16 | November 15, 2016[7] | February 21, 2017 | ||
| 5 | TBA | November 7, 2017[8] | TBA | ||
Production[edit]
Having started in 2014, The Curse of Oak Island has run for four seasons. On August 2, 2016, it was announced that Nova Scotia Business Inc. approved $1,271,546 in film funding for the production of the most recent 4th season.[9] When asked about a 5th season, creator Kevin Burns said that it all depends on the Lagina brothers. Burns said that the brothers are "not reality show people", and have always been "reluctant" to do more seasons as filming keeps the brothers away from their families for up to five months. Burns also released a statement saying: "We are not set to come back for another year, take of that what you will", leaving the future of the show uncertain.[10]
In October 2017, a fifth season was announced, which began airing on November 7, 2017.[11]
Episodes[edit]
Season 1 (2014)[edit]
| No. overall | No. in season | Title | Original air date | Viewers (millions) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 1 | "What Lies Below" | January 5, 2014 | 2.53[12] |
| Brothers Rick and Marty Lagina now own most of Oak Island. Determined to resume the search for treasure on the island, they explore an abandoned shaft called Borehole 10-Xand use water pressure to pump material to the surface. They find a tiny piece of metal. | ||||
| 2 | 2 | "The Mystery of Smith's Cove" | January 12, 2014 | 2.35[13] |
| A scuba team that includes Marty's son Alex Lagina dives Smith's Cove and finds what are claimed to be non-indigenous coconut fibres and anomalous stones. Meanwhile, more metal fragments and cat bones are found in the slurry from 10-X. | ||||
| 3 | 3 | "Voices from the Grave" | January 19, 2014 | 2.33[14] |
| As Rick and Marty Lagina begin working to drain a swamp, they are visited by a woman who lost her father and brother to a tragic accident on Oak Island. | ||||
| 4 | 4 | "The Secret of Solomon's Temple" | January 26, 2014 | 2.72[15] |
| A visitor to the island presents Rick and Marty Lagina with his theory about where the treasure on Oak Island is located and the idea that the Menorah might be among the treasures for which they are searching. | ||||
| 5 | 5 | "The Find" | February 9, 2014 | 2.97[16] |
| The team digs in a shallow muddy swamp and finds what appears to be an antique Spanish copper coin. A diver is later sent into the swamp and finds no additional objects. | ||||
Season 2 (2014–2015)[edit]
| No. overall | No. in season | Title | Original air date | Viewers (millions) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 6 | 1 | "Once In, Forever In" | November 4, 2014 | 2.60[17] |
| After dating the Spanish coin they found last summer to 1652, brothers Rick and Marty Lagina return to Oak Island and begin searching the swamp again. | ||||
| 7 | 2 | "Return To The Money Pit" | November 11, 2014 | 2.15[18] |
| The team drills in the area of the money pit but is unable to drill through the underground material. A visitor shows them alleged evidence that the treasures from King Solomon's Temple could be buried on Oak Island. | ||||
| 8 | 3 | "The Eight-Pointed Star" | November 18, 2014 | 2.23[19] |
| A treasure hunter presents a theory that Phoenicians visited the island 2500 years ago and left behind the ark of the covenant. Rick and Marty Lagina unsuccessfully look for evidence to prove it while also trying to locate the original Money Pit. | ||||
| 9 | 4 | "The Breakthrough" | November 25, 2014 | 2.15[20] |
| A tree stump in the swamp is examined. Core samples extracted by drilling are discovered to contain rocks and wood. | ||||
| 10 | 5 | "The 90-Foot Stone" | December 2, 2014 | 2.46[21] |
| A visitor comes to the island suggesting that he has discovered a secret method of getting to the treasure. He claims that Francis Bacon has left behind instructions to the effect that the "flood tunnels" can be disabled by pouring corn into the money pit. The team declines to test the theory and instead visits a masonic lodge. The team searches the swamp again and finds nothing. | ||||
| 11 | 6 | "Seven Must Dye" | December 9, 2014 | 2.90[22] |
| Rick searches for man-made flood tunnels without success; Marty and John visit Europe to track down a lead. | ||||
| 12 | 7 | "The Trail of the Templars" | December 16, 2014 | 2.47[23] |
| While work begins in the swamp, Rick and Marty travel to Scotland to investigate more corn-related theories about the money pit. They are also presented with a theory that Oak Island is a copy of King Solomon's Temple and that the entrance to the Money Pit is in the swamp. | ||||
| 13 | 8 | "X Marks the Spot" | December 23, 2014 | 2.72[24] |
| Rick and Marty search the swamp for an alternate entrance into the Money Pit, without success. | ||||
| 14 | 9 | "A Dangerous Dive" | January 6, 2015 | 2.59[25] |
| Rick and Marty take a team of divers to Oak Island. | ||||
| 15 | 10 | "The Big Reveal" | January 13, 2015 | 3.06[26] |
| Rick and Marty use sonar to map out the bottom chamber of the 10-X borehole. | ||||
Season 3 (2015–2016)[edit]
| No. overall | No. in season | Title | Original air date | Viewers (millions) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 16 | 1 | "The Hole Truth" | November 10, 2015 | 2.26[28] |
| Rick and Marty search for underground tunnels on Oak Island and prep borehole 10-X for a dive.[27] | ||||
| 17 | 2 | "Pipe Down" | November 17, 2015 | 2.56[30] |
| Prep work for a dive in borehole 10X continues while the team simultaneously searches the area near the Money Pit for shallow treasure.[29] | ||||
| 18 | 3 | "Time to Dig" | November 24, 2015 | 2.60[32] |
| Rick, Marty and the team go shopping for excavation equipment, investigate the location of a possible Knight's Templar treasure and search for the original location of the Money Pit.[31] | ||||
| 19 | 4 | "The Overton Stone" | December 1, 2015 | 3.05[34] |
| Work continues to locate the Money Pit while the team investigates a stone with purported Portuguese carvings.[33] | ||||
| 20 | 5 | "Disappearing Act" | December 8, 2015 | 3.22[36] |
| The team completes preparations for a dive expedition down borehole 10X by investigating the shaft with a camera.[35] | ||||
| 21 | 6 | "Carved in Stone" | December 15, 2015[38] | 2.47[39] |
| Rick, Marty and the team investigate rocks on Oak Island. A researcher visits the island and claims that the Aztecs may have visited the island in the past.[37] | ||||
| 22 | 7 | "The Missing Peace" | December 22, 2015[38] | 3.40[41] |
| Rick and Marty welcome long-time rival Fred Nolan into the team.[40] | ||||
| 23 | 8 | "Phantoms of the Deep" | December 29, 2015[38] | 3.30[43] |
| The team conducts a sonar sweep of the waters surrounding Oak Island and begin digging on Fred Nolan's property.[42] | ||||
| 24 | 9 | "Columbus Day" | January 5, 2016[38] | 2.79[45] |
| The team preps for a dive of borehole 10X. They also listen to a theory about Christopher Columbus visiting the Island.[44] | ||||
| 25 | 10 | "Silence in the Dark" | January 12, 2016[38] | 3.11[47] |
| Difficulties are encountered during the dive to the bottom of borehole 10X, the team further investigates Fred Nolan's property and an alleged Roman sword found in the waters off Oak Island is presented to the team.[46] | ||||
| 26 | 11 | "Sword Play" | January 19, 2016[38] | 2.82[49] |
| The team has the Roman sword investigated and find that it is a modern reproduction. There is an unproductive search for treasure north of the Money Pit.[48] | ||||
| 27 | 12 | "Voices from Below" | January 26, 2016[38] | 3.17[51] |
| The team dives to the bottom of borehole 10X. In a separate investigation, a cavity is found far underground near the Money Pit.[50] | ||||
| 28 | 13 | "Secrets and Revelations" | February 2, 2016[38] | 3.41[52] |
| The diving investigation of borehole 10X concludes with nothing found. Relatives of the original Oak Island treasure hunters present a gold cross which is said to have come from the treasure. | ||||
Season 4 (2016–2017)[edit]
| No. overall | No. in season | Title | Original air date | Viewers (millions) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 29 | 1 | "Going for Broke" | November 15, 2016 | 2.62[54] |
| The team agrees to turn focus over to the Money Pit and review what they have collected. A researcher presents a copy of what she claims is a French map from 1347 of Oak Island. The map shows locations for a "hatch", a "valve" and an "anchor" on the Island. A theory is presented based on a purported decoding of a cipher that Joab at the time of King David transported the Ark of the Covenant to North Africa from which it was later transported onward by the Knights Templar from the then-Portuguese town of Safi in Morocco to Oak Island.[53] | ||||
| 30 | 2 | "Always Forward" | November 22, 2016 | 2.66[55] |
| While preparing to excavate the Money Pit, the team investigates an 18th century well on mainland Nova Scotia. The team brings in an archaeologist to inspect a hole on Dave Blankenship's property which they think is a potential "hatch". | ||||
| 31 | 3 | "Swamp Things" | November 29, 2016 | 2.97[56] |
| A piece of rock with scratches is found, before the team revisits the swamp for another look and finds very little. | ||||
| 32 | 4 | "No Stone Unturned" | December 6, 2016 | 2.95[57] |
| Part of the team unsuccessfully attempts to track down the '90-foot stone' in nearby Halifax; while the first excavation in over 50 years begins in the Money Pit. | ||||
| 33 | 5 | "Bullseye" | December 11, 2016 | 2.82[58] |
| A new theory that Inca gold is buried on Oak Island is offered, albeit without evidence to support it. Meanwhile the team supposedly inches their way to the alleged target in the Money Pit. | ||||
| 34 | 6 | "Circles in Wood" | December 20, 2016 | 3.44[59] |
| A few coins are found on the island, a long way from the money pit. The money pit search for the 'Chappel Vault' ends in failure so a new target is set for 170ft C-1 shaft in the Money Pit area. | ||||
| 35 | 7 | "All That Glitters" | December 27, 2016 | 3.68[60] |
| The swamp is drained and searched with a metal detector revealing an old spike. Object not dated. C-1 Dig Site is drilled to target depth of 170 ft. where previously inserted camera may have seen something shiny and gold colored. | ||||
| 36 | 8 | "The Mystery of Samuel Ball" | January 3, 2017 | 3.43[61] |
| A tiny amount of evidence is offered supposedly linking an 18th-century slave to the mystery. | ||||
| 37 | 9 | "Echoes from the Deep" | January 10, 2017 | 3.35[62] |
| A camera sent down 10X confirms the divers impression that there is nothing there of note, undermining the camera's operators previous assertion that they were 90% certain there was a chest there. Some of the team are in denial about this and insist there is still some point in exploring 10-X further on the basis that Dan Blankenship has spent so much time on it, it must be the key to the alleged puzzle. | ||||
| 38 | 10 | "About Face" | January 17, 2017 | 3.04[63] |
| Divers are sent to the bottom of borehole C-1. Nothing is found. A rock fifty miles from Oak Island is examined. The team decides to do a new examination of borehole 10X. | ||||
| 39 | 11 | "Presidential Secrets" | January 24, 2017 | 3.20[64] |
| The new examination of borehole 10X concludes. Equipment failure delays excavation of a new hole. Rick heads to the Franklin D. Roosevelt library to learn why the late President was interested in Oak Island. | ||||
| 40 | 12 | "Hyde Park & Seek" | January 31, 2017 | 3.15[65] |
| A cofferdam is built at Smith's Cove and the beach is excavated. The team debates where the "money pit" might have been. | ||||
| 41 | 13 | "One Of Seven" | February 7, 2017 | 3.24[66] |
| The team attempts to decode a cipher and concludes that they only possess 1/7th of the cipher. Rocks are found at Smith's Cove. The investigation of the cove is halted for the year. A man from Arizona claims, without any evidence, that several hundred tons of gold are hidden in tunnels near Oak Island. | ||||
| 42 | 14 | "Sticks and Stones" | February 14, 2017 | 3.20[67] |
| Rocks are examined on Oak Island. Pieces of wood are carbon dated. The third excavation on the island this season reaches bedrock with nothing found. The team decides to dig another hole. | ||||
| 43 | 15 | "Blood is Thicker" | February 21, 2017 | 3.79[68] |
The final excavation of the season leads to the discovery of scrap metal pieces, a washer, several hex nuts and a button. Season finale featured McGinnis gold cross, iron spike, and other artifacts evaluated by antiques appraiser Dr. Lori Verderame (Ph.D. - History of Art and Architecture).
Note: This episode aired as a 2-hour special. | ||||
| 44 | 16 | "Drilling Down" | February 28, 2017 | 1.72[69] |
The team is interviewed at the end of season. The wood from borehole 10-X is carbon dated as being from 1670-1780. A new cipher is decoded leading the team to once again believe that there is a "hatch" somewhere on the island. The team wants to continue searching the swamp. The team proposes pumping borehole 10-X dry to enable yet another round of searches. The team wants to search more of the Island with metal detectors in the future.
Note: This episode is a special. | ||||
Season 5 (2017–2018)[edit]
| No. overall | No. in season | Title | Original air date | Viewers (millions) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 45 | 1 | "Forever Family" | November 7, 2017 | 2.95[70] |
| A diver is sent to the bottom of borehole C-1. Mud is recovered. A nail is found in an old spoils pile from GAL-1. A copper coin is found in the woods near Issac's Point. | ||||
| 46 | 2 | "Dead Man's Chest" | November 14, 2017 | 2.98[71] |
| The sea chest of a captain who lived in Nova Scotia in the 1780s is examined. Salt water starts coming out the top of borehole C-1. Another copper coin is found on the island. | ||||
| 47 | 3 | "Obstruction" | November 21, 2017 | 2.85[72] |
| Two old British copper coins are found in the woods. The Province of Nova Scotia requests that an archaeologist be on site on Oak Island as an adviser to the treasure hunters. Part of a metal spoon and round rocks are discovered under tree stumps. Based on the rocks and the spoon pieces, Marty Lagina concludes that "something must have happened here". A small piece of scrap metal is found in the mud brought up from one of the new boreholes being drilled in the "money pit" area. | ||||
| 48 | 4 | "Close Call" | November 28, 2017 | 3.36[73] |
| Drilling below bedrock, the team discovers a void in the rock and concludes with no evidence that it is a "spiral shaft" leading from the surface to a vault. A hose on the drill detaches resulting in a worker falling backward and suffering a minor injury to his wrist. Drilling is halted for over a week. A toy gun is found in the woods and the team launches an investigation of it. Lee Lamb and Richard Restall visit the island. Richard Restall is identified conclusively as the owner of the toy gun. | ||||
| 49 | 5 | "Bone Dry" | December 5, 2017 | 3.16[74] |
| An iron spike is found on the beach. Some small pottery fragments are brought up from one of the boreholes. Two human bone fragments were recovered and sent in for testing. | ||||
| 50 | 6 | "Remains of the Day"[75] | December 12, 2017 | TBD |
See also[edit]
Supercontinent
In geology, a supercontinent is the assembly of most or all of Earth's continental blocks or cratons to form a single large landmass.[2][3]However, the definition of a supercontinent can be ambiguous. Many earth scientists use the term supercontinent to mean "a clustering of nearly all continents".[1] This definition leaves room for interpretation when labeling a continental body and is easier to apply to Precambrian times.[4]Using the first definition provided here, Gondwana is not considered a supercontinent, because the landmasses of Baltica, Laurentia and Siberiaalso existed at the same time but physically separate from each other.[4] The landmass of Pangaea is the collective name describing all of these continental masses when they were most recently near to one another. This would classify Pangaea as a supercontinent. According to the modern definitions, a supercontinent does not exist today.[2] Supercontinents have assembled and dispersed multiple times in the geologic past (see table). The positions of continents have been accurately determined back to the early Jurassic. However, beyond 200 Ma, continental positions are much less certain.[5]
Contents
[hide]Supercontinents throughout geologic history[edit]
-4500 —
–
-4000 —
–
-3500 —
–
-3000 —
–
-2500 —
–
-2000 —
–
-1500 —
–
-1000 —
–
-500 —
–
0 —
Axis scale: millions of years ago.
Orange labels: ice ages.
Also see: Human timeline and Nature timeline
Orange labels: ice ages.
Also see: Human timeline and Nature timeline
The following table displays historical supercontinents, using a general definition.[which?]
| Supercontinent name | Age (Mya: millions years ago) |
|---|---|
| Vaalbara | ~3,636–2,803 |
| Ur | ~2,803–2,408 |
| Kenorland | ~2,720–2,114 |
| Arctica | ~2,114–1,995 |
| Atlantica | ~1,991-1,124 |
| Columbia (Nuna) | ~1,820–1,350 |
| Rodinia | ~1,130–750 |
| Pannotia | ~633-573 |
| Gondwana | ~578-96 |
| Pangaea | ~336-173 |
| Laurasia | ~451-72 |
General chronology[edit]
There are two contrasting models for supercontinent evolution through geological time. The first model theorizes that at least two separate supercontinents existed comprising Vaalbara (from ~3636 to 2803 Ma) and Kenorland (from ~2720 to 2450 Ma). The Neoarchean supercontinent consisted of Superia and Sclavia. These parts of Neoarchean age broke off at ~2480 and 2312 Maand portions of them later collided to form Nuna (Northern Europe North America) (~1820 Ma). Nuna continued to develop during the Mesoproterozoic, primarily by lateral accretion of juvenile arcs, and in ~1000 Ma Nuna collided with other land masses, forming Rodinia.[4] Between ~825 and 750 Ma Rodinia broke apart.[6] However, before completely breaking up, some fragments of Rodinia had already come together to form Gondwana (also known as Gondwanaland) by ~608 Ma. Pangaea formed by ~336 Ma through the collision of Gondwana, Laurasia (Laurentia and Baltica), and Siberia.
The second model (Kenorland-Arctica) is based on both palaeomagnetic and geological evidence and proposes that the continental crust comprised a single supercontinent from ~2.72 Ga until break-up during the Ediacaran Period after ~0.573 Ga. The reconstruction[7] is derived from the observation that palaeomagnetic poles converge to quasi-static positions for long intervals between ~2.72–2.115, 1.35–1.13, and 0.75–0.573 Ga with only small peripheral modifications to the reconstruction.[8] During the intervening periods, the poles conform to a unified apparent polar wander path. Because this model shows that exceptional demands on the paleomagnetic data are satisfied by prolonged quasi-integrity, it must be regarded as superseding the first model proposing multiple diverse continents, although the first phase (Protopangea) essentially incorporates Vaalbara and Kenorland of the first model. The explanation for the prolonged duration of the Protopangea-Paleopangea supercontinent appears to be that Lid Tectonics (comparable to the tectonics operating on Mars and Venus) prevailed during Precambrian times. Plate Tectonics as seen on the contemporary Earth became dominant only during the latter part of geological times.[8]
The Phanerozoic supercontinent Pangaea began to break up 215 Ma and is still doing so today. Because Pangaea is the most recent of Earth's supercontinents, it is the most well known and understood. Contributing to Pangaea's popularity in the classroom is the fact that its reconstruction is almost as simple as fitting the present continents bordering the Atlantic-type oceans like puzzle pieces.[4]
Supercontinent cycles[edit]
A supercontinent cycle is the break-up of one supercontinent and the development of another, which takes place on a global scale.[4] Supercontinent cycles are not the same as the Wilson cycle, which is the opening and closing of an individual oceanic basin. The Wilson cycle rarely synchronizes with the timing of a supercontinent cycle.[2] However, supercontinent cycles and Wilson cycles were both involved in the creation of Pangaea and Rodinia.[5]
Secular trends such as carbonatites, granulites, eclogites, and greenstone belt deformation events are all possible indicators of Precambrian supercontinent cyclicity, although the Protopangea-Paleopangea solution implies that Phanerozoic style of supercontinent cycles did not operate during these times. Also there are instances where these secular trends have a weak, uneven or lack of imprint on the supercontinent cycle; secular methods for supercontinent reconstruction will produce results that have only one explanation and each explanation for a trend must fit in with the rest.[4]
Supercontinents and volcanism[edit]
The causes of supercontinent assembly and dispersal are thought to be driven by processes in the mantle.[2] Approximately 660 km into the mantle, a discontinuity occurs, affecting the surface crust through processes like plumes and "superplumes". When a slab of crust that is subducted is denser than the surrounding mantle, it sinks to the discontinuity. Once the slabs build up, they will sink through to the lower mantle in what is known as a "slab avalanche". This displacement at the discontinuity will cause the lower mantle to compensate and rise elsewhere. The rising mantle can form a plume or superplume.
Besides having compositional effects on the upper mantle by replenishing the large-ion lithophile elements, volcanism affects the plate movement.[2] The plates will be moved towards a geoidal low perhaps where the slab avalanche occurred and pushed away from the geoidal high that can be caused by the plumes or superplumes. This causes the continents to push together to form supercontinents and was evidently the process that operated to cause the early continental crust to aggregate into Protopangea.[9] Dispersal of supercontinents is caused by the accumulation of heat underneath the crust due to the rising of very large convection cells or plumes, and a massive heat release resulted in the final break-up of Paleopangea.[10] Accretion occurs over geoidal lows that can be caused by avalanche slabs or the downgoing limbs of convection cells. Evidence of the accretion and dispersion of supercontinents is seen in the geological rock record.
The influence of known volcanic eruptions does not compare to that of flood basalts. The timing of flood basalts has corresponded with large-scale continental break-up. However, due to a lack of data on the time required to produce flood basalts, the climatic impact is difficult to quantify. The timing of a single lava flow is also undetermined. These are important factors on how flood basalts influenced paleoclimate.[5]
Supercontinents and plate tectonics[edit]
Global paleogeography and plate interactions as far back as Pangaea are relatively well understood today. However, the evidence becomes more sparse further back in geologic history. Marine magnetic anomalies, passive margin match-ups, geologic interpretation of orogenic belts, paleomagnetism, paleobiogeography of fossils, and distribution of climatically sensitive strata are all methods to obtain evidence for continent locality and indicators of environment throughout time.[4]
Phanerozoic (541 Ma to present) and Precambrian (4.6 Ga to 541 Ma) had primarily passive margins and detrital zircons (and orogenicgranites), whereas the tenure of Pangaea contained few.[4] Matching edges of continents are where passive margins form. The edges of these continents may rift. At this point, seafloor spreading becomes the driving force. Passive margins are therefore born during the break-up of supercontinents and die during supercontinent assembly. Pangaea's supercontinent cycle is a good example for the efficiency of using the presence, or lack of, these entities to record the development, tenure, and break-up of supercontinents. There is a sharp decrease in passive margins between 500 and 350 Ma during the timing of Pangaea's assembly. The tenure of Pangaea is marked by a low number of passive margins during 336 to 275 Ma, and its break-up is indicated accurately by an increase in passive margins.[4]
Orogenic belts can form during the assembly of continents and supercontinents. The orogenic belts present on continental blocks are classified into three different categories and have implications of interpreting geologic bodies.[2] Intercratonic orogenic belts are characteristic of ocean basin closure. Clear indicators of intercratonic activity contain ophiolitesand other oceanic materials that are present in the suture zone. Intracratonic orogenic belts occur as thrust belts and do not contain any oceanic material. However, the absence of ophiolites is not strong evidence for intracratonic belts, because the oceanic material can be squeezed out and eroded away in an intercratonic environment. The third kind of orogenic belt is a confined orogenic belt which is the closure of small basins. The assembly of a supercontinent would have to show intercratonic orogenic belts.[2] However, interpretation of orogenic belts can be difficult.
The collision of Gondwana and Laurasia occurred in the late Palaeozoic. By this collision, the Variscan mountain range was created, along the equator.[5] This 6000-km-long mountain range is usually referred to in two parts: the Hercynian mountain range of the late Carboniferous makes up the eastern part, and the western part is called the Appalachians, uplifted in the early Permian. (The existence of a flat elevated plateau like the Tibetan Plateau is under much debate.) The locality of the Variscan range made it influential to both the northern and southern hemispheres. The elevation of the Appalachians would greatly influence global atmospheric circulation.[5]
Supercontinental climate[edit]
Continents, in particular large or supercontinents, will affect the climate of the planet drastically. In general the interaction of supercontinents and climate is similar to the interaction between present-day continents and climate, just on a different scale. Supercontinents have a larger effect on climate than do continents. The configuration and placement of the continents has a larger influence on climate. Continents modify global wind patterns, control ocean current paths and have a higher albedo than the oceans.[2] Because continents are higher in the elevation, the temperature decreases with altitude. The wind is redirected by mountains. The albedo difference causes a shift in climate by onshore winds. "Continentality" occurs because the center of large continents are generally higher in elevations and are therefore cooler and drier. This is seen today with Eurasia, and evidence is present in the rock record that this is true for the middle of Pangaea.[2]
Glacial[edit]
The term glacio-epoch refers to a long episode of glaciation on Earth over millions of years.[11] Glaciers have major implications on the climate particularly through sea level change. Changes in the position and elevation of the continents, the paleolatitude and ocean circulation affect the glacio-epochs. There is an association between the rifting and breakup of continents and supercontinents and glacio-epochs.[11] According to the first model for Precambrian supercontinents described above the breakup of Kenorland and Rodinia were associated with the Paleoproterozoic and Neoproterozoic glacio-epochs, respectively. In contrast, the second solution described above shows that these glaciations correlated with periods of low continental velocity and it is concluded that a fall in tectonic and corresponding volcanic activity was responsible for these intervals of global frigidity.[8] During the accumulation of supercontinents with times of regional uplift, glacio-epochs seem to be rare with little supporting evidence. However, the lack of evidence does not allow for the conclusion that glacio-epochs are not associated with collisional assembly of supercontinents.[11] This could just represent a preservation bias.
During the late Ordovician (~458.4 Ma), the particular configuration of Gondwana may have allowed for glaciation and high CO2 levels to occur at the same time.[12] However, some geologists disagree and think that there was a temperature increase at this time. This increase may have been strongly influenced by the movement of Gondwana across the South Pole, which may have prevented lengthy snow accumulation. Although late Ordovician temperatures at the South Pole may have reached freezing, there were no ice sheets during the early Silurian (~443.8 Ma) through the late Mississippian (~330.9 Ma).[5] Agreement can be met with the theory that continental snow can occur when the edge of a continent is near the pole. Therefore, Gondwana, although located tangent to the South Pole, may have experienced glaciation along its coast.[12]
Precipitation[edit]
Though precipitation rates during monsoonal circulations are difficult to predict, there is evidence for a large orographic barrier within the interior of Pangaea during the late Paleozoic (~251.902 Ma). The possibility of the SW-NE trending Appalachian-Hercynian Mountains makes the region's monsoonal circulations potentially relatable to present day monsoonal circulations surrounding the Tibetan Plateau, which is known to positively influence the magnitude of monsoonal periods within Eurasia. It is therefore somewhat expected that lower topography in other regions of the supercontinent during the Jurassic would negatively influence precipitation variations. The breakup of supercontinents may have affected local precipitation.[13] When any supercontinent breaks up, there will be an increase in precipitation runoff over the surface of the continental land masses, increasing silicate weatheringand the consumption of CO2.[6]
Temperature[edit]
Even though during the Archaean solar radiation was reduced by 30 percent and the Cambrian-Precambrian boundary by six percent, the Earth has only experienced three ice ages throughout the Precambrian.[5] It must be noted that erroneous conclusions are more likely to be made when models are limited to one climatic configuration (which is usually present day).[13]
Cold winters in continental interiors are due to rate ratios of radiative cooling (greater) and heat transport from continental rims. To raise winter temperatures within continental interiors, the rate of heat transport must increase to become greater than the rate of radiative cooling. Through climate models, alterations in atmospheric CO2 content and ocean heat transport are not comparatively effective.[13]
CO2 models suggest that values were low in the late Cenozoic and Carboniferous-Permian glaciations. Although early Paleozoic values are much larger (more than ten percent higher than that of today). This may be due to high seafloor spreading rates after the breakup of Precambrian supercontinents and the lack of land plants as a carbon sink.[12]
During the late Permian, it is expected that seasonal Pangaean temperatures varied drastically. Subtropic summer temperatures were warmer than that of today by as much as 6–10 degrees and mid-latitudes in the winter were less than −30 degrees Celsius. These seasonal changes within the supercontinent were influenced by the large size of Pangaea. And, just like today, coastal regions experienced much less variation.[5]
During the Jurassic, summer temperatures did not rise above zero degrees Celsius along the northern rim of Laurasia, which was the northernmost part of Pangaea (the southernmost portion of Pangaea was Gondwana). Ice-rafted dropstones sourced from Russia are indicators of this northern boundary. The Jurassic is thought to have been approximately 10 degrees Celsius warmer along 90 degrees East paleolongitude compared to the present temperature of today's central Eurasia.[13]
Milankovitch cycles[edit]
Many studies of the Milankovitch fluctuations during supercontinent time periods have focused on the Mid-Cretaceous. Present amplitudes of Milankovitch cycles over present day Eurasia may be mirrored in both the southern and northern hemispheres of the supercontinent Pangaea. Climate modeling shows that summer fluctuations varied 14–16 degrees Celsius on Pangaea, which is similar or slightly higher than summer temperatures of Eurasia during the Pleistocene. The largest-amplitude Milankovitch cycles are expected to have been at mid- to high-latitudes during the Triassic and Jurassic.[13]
Proxies[edit]
Granites and detrital zircons have notably similar and episodic appearances in the rock record. Their fluctuations correlate with Precambrian supercontinent cycles. The U–Pb zircon dates from orogenic granites are among the most reliable aging determinants. Some issues exist with relying on granite sourced zircons, such as a lack of evenly globally sourced data and the loss of granite zircons by sedimentary coverage or plutonic consumption. Where granite zircons are less adequate, detrital zircons from sandstones appear and make up for the gaps. These detrital zircons are taken from the sands of major modern rivers and their drainage basins.[4] Oceanic magnetic anomalies and paleomagnetic data are the primary resources used for reconstructing continent and supercontinent locations back to roughly 150 Ma.[5]
Supercontinents and atmospheric gases[edit]
Plate tectonics and the chemical composition of the atmosphere (specifically greenhouse gases) are the two most prevailing factors present within the geologic time scale. Continental drift influences both cold and warm climatic episodes. Atmospheric circulation and climate are strongly influenced by the location and formation of continents and megacontinents. Therefore, continental drift influences mean global temperature.[5]
Oxygen levels of the Archaean Eon were negligible and today they are roughly 21 percent. It is thought that the Earth's oxygen content has risen in stages: six or seven steps that are timed very closely to the development of Earth's supercontinents.[14]
- Continents collide
- Supermountains form
- Erosion of supermountains
- Large quantities of minerals and nutrients wash out to open ocean
- Explosion of marine algae life (partly sourced from noted nutrients)
- Mass amounts of oxygen produced during photosynthesis
The process of Earth's increase in atmospheric oxygen content is theorized to have started with continent-continent collision of huge land masses forming supercontinents, and therefore possibly supercontinent mountain ranges (supermountains). These supermountains would have eroded, and the mass amounts of nutrients, including iron and phosphorus, would have washed into oceans, just as we see happening today. The oceans would then be rich in nutrients essential to photosynthetic organisms, which would then be able to respire mass amounts of oxygen. There is an apparent direct relationship between orogeny and the atmospheric oxygen content). There is also evidence for increased sedimentation concurrent with the timing of these mass oxygenation events, meaning that the organic carbon and pyrite at these times were more likely to be buried beneath sediment and therefore unable to react with the free oxygen. This sustained the atmospheric oxygen increases.[14]
During this time, 2.65 Ga there was an increase in molybdenum isotope fractionation. It was temporary, but supports the increase in atmospheric oxygen because molybdenum isotopes require free oxygen to fractionate. Between 2.45 and 2.32 Ga, the second period of oxygenation occurred, it has been called the 'great oxygenation event.' There are many pieces of evidence that support the existence of this event, including red beds appearance 2.3 Ga (meaning that Fe3+ was being produced and became an important component in soils). The third oxygenation stage approximately 1.8 Ga is indicated by the disappearance of iron formations. Neodymium isotopic studies suggest that iron formations are usually from continental sources, meaning that dissolved Fe and Fe2+ had to be transported during continental erosion. A rise in atmospheric oxygen prevents Fe transport, so the lack of iron formations may have been due to an increase in oxygen. The fourth oxygenation event, roughly 0.6 Ga, is based on modeled rates of sulfur isotopes from marine carbonate-associated sulfates. An increase (near doubled concentration) of sulfur isotopes, which is suggested by these models, would require an increase in oxygen content of the deep oceans. Between 650 and 550 Ma there were three increases in ocean oxygen levels, this period is the fifth oxygenation stage. One of the reasons indicating this period to be an oxygenation event is the increase in redox-sensitive molybdenum in black shales. The sixth event occurred between 360 and 260 Ma and was identified by models suggesting shifts in the balance of 34S in sulfates and 13C in carbonates, which were strongly influenced by an increase in atmospheric oxygen.[14]
See also[edit]
References[edit]
- ^ a b Hoffman, P.F., "The break-up of Rodinia, Birth of Gondwana, True Polar Wander and the Snowball Earth". Journal of African Earth Sciences, 17 (1999): 17–33.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Rogers, John J. W., and M. Santosh. Continents and Supercontinents. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2004. Print.
- ^ Configuration of Columbia, a Mesoproterozoic Supercontinent by John J. W. Rogers and M. Santosh 2002
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Bradley, Dwight C., "Secular Trends in the Geologic Record and the Supercontinent Cycle". Earth Science Review. (2011): 1–18.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Fluteau, Frédéric. (2003). "Earth dynamics and climate changes". C. R. Geoscience 335 (1): 157–174. doi:10.1016/S1631-0713(03)00004-X
- ^ a b Donnadieu, Yannick et al. "A 'Snowball Earth' Climate Triggered by Continental Break-Up Through Changes in Runoff." Nature, 428 (2004): 303–306.
- ^ Piper, J.D.A. "A planetary perspective on Earth evolution: Lid Tectonics before Plate Tectonics." Tectonophysics. 589 (2013): 44–56.
- ^ a b c Piper, J.D.A. "Continental velocity through geological time: the link to magmatism, crustal accretion and episodes of global cooling." Geoscience Frontiers. 4 (2013): 7–36.
- ^ Piper, J.D.A. "Protopangea: palaeomangetic definition of Earth's oldest (Mid-Archaean-Paleoproterozoic) supercontinent." Journal of Geodynamics. 50 (2010): 154–165.
- ^ Piper, J.D.A., "Paleopangea in Meso-Neoproterozoic times: the paleomagnetic evidence and implications to continental integrity, supercontinent from and Eocambrian break-up." Journal of Geodynamics. 50 (2010): 191–223.
- ^ a b c Eyles, Nick. "Glacio-epochs and the Supercontinent Cycle after ~3.0 Ga: Tectonic Boundary Conditions for Glaciation." Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 258 (2008): 89–129. Print.
- ^ a b c Crowley, Thomas J., "Climate Change on Tectonic Time Scales". Tectonophysics. 222 (1993): 277–294.
- ^ a b c d e Baum, Steven K., and Thomas J. Crowely. "Milankovitch Fluctuations on Supercontinents." Geophysical Research Letters. 19 (1992): 793–796. Print.
- ^ a b c d Campbell, Ian H., Charlotte M. Allen. "Formation of Supercontinents Linked to Increases in Atmospheric Oxygen." Nature. 1 (2008): 554–558.
Further reading[edit]
- Nield, Ted, Supercontinent: Ten Billion Years in the Life of Our Planet, Harvard University Press, 2009, ISBN 978-0674032453
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