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Cantore Arithmetic is able: Hoof equated cleft palate. Equation equaled the petal wrist watch to the over abundant pixels as the photograph of the king in a limestone chisel placed to the wall a pestle in description of the flower to the possible wheel as in adding the Egyptian Dendera light: Big pause To Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego as the possible Three Wise men!!
Attention Dr. David Jeremiah, all included now; text Tile one Brick!!
refer to addendum at movie of Michael Keaton to how many faces the Egyptian rode: In addition double check the Ancient Mesopotamia leadership of time to date and the placard of what may be an early wheel to the pronounced option of so and so wearing a watch: Flower with petals is in stone the ship is a club?
Ancient scrolls are the Sails to Ancient Vessels equating ancient cell? The flag to the stem would be a pale, i.e. bucket and the flowers would be its plant?
The petals to the pressed and regard earrings to the Shroud of Turin: Shamash (Akkadian: šamaš[a]) was the ancient Mesopotamian sun god, earlier known as Utu (Sumerian: dUTU 𒀭𒌓 "Sun"[2]).
The molt to the monarch and eventual mammoth possible Conch!!
Prosperity: Leviticus 11:3
“Whatsoever parteth the hoof, and is clovenfooted, and cheweth the cud, among the beasts, that shall ye eat.” King James Version (KJV)
Hoof to John 9:6: “When he had thus spoken, he spat on the ground, and made clay of the spittle, and he anointed the eyes of the blind man with the clay,” King James Version (KJV)
define unclean: Do not cheweth the cud; possible mud, bark of the nerve to the ointment bringing now to the difference engine as people did not listen, the ear: Vincent van Gogh cut off his left ear when tempers flared, Tower of Babel removed to cone: Chip off the old block: Chalk let!!
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"CHALKSTONES" in the KJV Bible
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- Isaiah 27:9chapter context similar meaning copy save
- By this therefore shall the iniquity of Jacob be purged; and this is all the fruit to take away his sin; when he maketh all the stones of the altar as chalkstones that are beaten in sunder, the groves and images shall not stand up.
History of scrolls
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A scroll (from the Old French escroe or escroue) is a roll of papyrus, parchment, or paper containing writing.[1] The history of scrolls dates back to ancient Egypt. In most ancient literate cultures scrolls were the earliest format for longer documents written in ink or paint on a flexible background, preceding bound books;[2] rigid media such as clay tablets were also used but had many disadvantages in comparison. For most purposes scrolls have long been superseded by the codex book format, but they are still produced for some ceremonial or religious purposes, notably for the Jewish Torah scroll for use in synagogues.
Origins of the scroll[edit]
The oldest known scroll is the Diary_of_Merer, which can be dated to c. 2568 BCE in the reign of the Pharaoh Khufu or Cheops due to its contents. Scrolls were used by many early civilizations before the codex, or bound bookwith pages, was invented by the Romans[3] and popularized by Christianity.[4] Nevertheless, scrolls were more highly regarded than codices until well into Roman times.
Eastern Mediterranean, West Asia and Europe[edit]
Israel[edit]
Scrolls were used by the Hebrews to record their religious texts, which today is referred to as the Tanakh. Some of these ancient scrolls are known today, i.e., the Dead Sea Scrolls.
Greece and Rome[edit]
Scrolls were used by the ancient Greeks. In Roman usage the scrolls were written latitudinally, usually placed on podiums with roll holders from which the rolls were unwound.[5][citation needed]
A vertically rolled form was also used, called a rotulus.
The Romans eventually found the scroll too cumbersome for lengthy works and developed the codex, which is the formal name for the modern style of book, with individual pages bound together.
Early Christian era[edit]
Scrolls continued to be used at times during the Early Church era until the Early Middle Ages, but Christianity was an early adopter of the codex. It is often thought that this reflects the background in trade of many early Christians, who were used to codex notebooks, and less attached to the form that was traditional among the Roman elite and religious Jews.
European Middle Ages[edit]
Scrolls virtually ceased to be used for books and documents in Europe during the Middle Ages, and were reintroduced for rare use in official treaties and other international documents of great significance during and after the Baroque Era of the 17th century. These were usually written on high quality vellum, and stored in elaborate silver and gold cases inscribed with names of participants. Earlier examples were written in Latin. Scrolls continued in use for administrative and accounting purposes all over Europe. In English they were often referred to as "rolls", hence the Great Rolls of the English Exchequer, and titles such as Master of the Rolls (a senior judge), still used in the 21st century. The official copy of English, now British, legislation was still printed on vellum in a roll format and stored in the Palace of Westminster until 2017, when the use of Vellum was replaced with archival paper.[6] The Exultet Scroll from Southern Italy and Byzantine Joshua Scroll were prestige objects that used the old form in a revivalist spirit.
West and Central Asia[edit]
Scrolls continued in use longer in the Islamic world, often elaborately decorated in calligraphic writing that included use of gold embossing and pigments when used for the writing of the Qur'an.
East Asia[edit]
Scrolls continued in use longer in East Asian cultures like China, Korea and Japan.
The Chinese invented and perfected 'Indian Ink' for use in writing, including scrolls. Originally designed for blacking the surfaces of raised stone-carved hieroglyphics, the ink was a mixture of soot from pine smoke and lamp oil mixed with the gelatin of donkey skin and musk. The ink invented by the Chinese philosopher, Tien-Lcheu (2697 B.C.)[citation needed], became common by the year 1200 B.C.
Later other formats came into use in China, firstly the sutra or scripture binding, a scroll folded concertina-style, which avoids the need to unroll to find a passage in the middle. By about 1,000 CE, sheet-based formats were introduced, although scrolls continued to have a place. Traditional painting and calligraphy in East Asia is often still performed on relatively short latitudinal paper scrolls displayed vertically as a hanging scroll on a wall or horizontally and flat as a handscroll.
Replacement by the codex[edit]
The codex was a new format for reading the written word, consisting of individual pages loosely attached to each other at one side and bound with boards or cloth. It replaced the scroll over time because it overcame at least seven problems that limited the scroll's function and readability. (1) Scrolls were relatively expensive to produce. Codices could easily be written and read on both sides of the page, halving the amount of paper or vellum required to hold the same amount of content. (2) Lengthy scrolls were bulky and heavy, both because they required double the writing surface, and because they also required at least one umbilicus (rolling stick) and a scroll case for protection. The use of codices with light paper or leather covers reduced the size and weight of the book by more than half. (3) Codices were easier to reproduce. It was possible to hold open a codex with one hand and copy text with the other. For early Christendom this was an invaluable asset, as the ability to mass reproduce their gospels was in high demand. (4) Codices were easier to read. Scrolls were very long, sometimes as long as ten meters. This made them hard to hold open and read, especially scrolls that were inscribed horizontally and unrolled vertically. (5) Codices were easier to index and annotate. As a scroll was continuous, without page breaks, indexing and bookmarking was impossible. Conversely, the codex was easier to hold open, separate pages made it possible to index sections and mark a page. (6) Codices were better protected. The covers of a codex protected the fragile pages better than scrolls. This made the codex particularly attractive for important religious texts. (7) The ink on codices could, in principle, last longer than the ink on scrolls. The ink used in writing scrolls had to adhere to a surface that was constantly rolled and unrolled, so special inks were developed. Even so, ink would slowly flake from scrolls. Codices involved much less flexing of the page, so they were less prone to this problem.[7]
The codex began to replace the scroll almost as soon as it was invented. Early Medieval Christians were some of the first to adopt the codex over the scroll.[8] In Egypt by the fifth century CE the codex outnumbered the scroll or roll by ten to one based on surviving examples, and by the sixth century the scroll had almost vanished from use as a vehicle for literature.[9]
However, in other places the scroll lingered. Monarchs used “statute rolls” to record important legislation until well into the Middle Ages. Scrolls were also commonly used in theater productions, a practice from which the term “actor’s roll” was coined.[10]
Modern era[edit]
Torah Scrolls are still used today in Jewish religious observance with almost insignificant changes despite the thousands of years in practice.
Some cultures use scrolls as ceremonial texts or for decoration—such as a hanging scroll—without any obvious division of the text into columns. In some scroll-using cultures painted illustrations were used as header decorations above the text columns, either in a continuous band or broken into scenes above either a single or double column of text.
One of the few modern texts the original of which was written on what is effectively a scroll is the manuscript of Jack Kerouac's On the Road, typed onto what he called "the scroll", made of taped-together sheets of paper. Although it was more for utilitarian than ceremonial purposes, the Marquis de Sade's 120 Days of Sodom, which he intended to be the filthiest book imaginable, is written on a scroll.
The verb "to scroll" is much used in the age of screen displays—computer displays, rolling credits in films and so on—with the screen filled with text moving (scrolling) up or down or sideways, appearing at one edge of the display and disappearing at the other as if being unrolled from one side of a scroll and rolled up at the other.
See also[edit]
References[edit]
- ^ Beal, Peter. (2008) "scroll" in A Dictionary of English Manuscript Terminology 1450–2000 Online edition. Oxford University Press, 2008. http://www.oxfordreference.com Retrieved 21 November 2013.
- ^ "Chapter 4. Literate Performances and Literate Government", History and the Written Word, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, pp. 74–90, 2020-12-31, doi:10.9783/9780812296761-006, ISBN 978-0-8122-9676-1, S2CID 242324088, retrieved 2020-09-18
- ^ Murray, Stuart A. P. (2009). The Library: An Illustrated History. Skyhorse Publishing. p. 46. ISBN 9781602397064.
- ^ "Codex". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2020.
- ^ Mizzi, Dennis (2019-01-24), "Were Scrolls Susceptible to Impurity? The View from Qumran", Law, Literature, and Society in Legal Texts from Qumran, BRILL, pp. 27–64, doi:10.1163/9789004393387_003, ISBN 978-90-04-39338-7, S2CID 126962616, retrieved 2020-09-18
- ^ Hope, Christopher (21 March 2017). "Anger as MPS bow to peers' pressure and end 500-year old tradition of printing new laws on vellum". The Telegraph.
- ^ Lyons, M. (2011) Books: A Living History. Los Angeles, CA: Getty Publications. p. 35-36
- ^ Frost, Gary, "Adoption of the Codex Book: Parable of a New Reading Mode", The Book and Paper Group Annual, Retrieved 12/1/2014
- ^ Roberts, Colin H., and Skeat, T.C. (1987), The Birth of the Codex. London: Oxford University Press for the British Academy, p. 75.
- ^ Lyons, M. (2011) Books: A Living History. Los Angeles, CA: Getty Publications. p. 37
External links[edit]
Ancient Egyptian navy
The ancient Egyptian navy has a very extensive history almost as old as the nation itself. The best sources over the type of ships they used and their purposes come from the reliefs from the various religious temples that spread throughout the land. While the early ships that were used to sail the Nile were often made out of reeds, the ocean and seagoing ships were then made out of cedar wood, most probably from the woods of Byblos in present day Lebanon. While the use of navy was not as important to the Egyptians as it may have been to the Greeks or Romans, it still proved its worth during the Thutmoside campaigns and even in defending Egypt under Rameses III. Thutmose III understood the importance in maintaining a fast and efficient communications and supply line that would connect his bases in the Levantine region with Egypt. For this reason, he constructed his famous dockyard for the royal fleet near Memphis, whose sole purpose was to constantly supply the campaigning Egyptian army with additional troops as well as communication with Egypt and general supplies.[1]
During the Old Kingdom all the way until the beginning of the New Kingdom, the navy and vessels of the ancient Egyptians were almost nonexistent other than to perform communication and transportation duties. However, through the massive reorganization of the Egyptian military in the New Kingdom and the aggressive foreign policy pursued by the Kings, the navy began to become ever more crucial in maintaining Egyptian power and influence abroad.
Construction of ships[edit]
Ships were first constructed in a very basic manner in which they used reeds. These ships were in no way able to travel in the Red or Mediterranean Sea, and so their purpose was only to navigate through the Nile. Whenever ships were required to endure longer travels, Egypt often imported cedar wood from Byblos, with whom they had good trade relations.[2] At the same time, they would ask other states that they traded with to supply them with a certain number of ships. This is exemplified in the Amarna letters where we find a request to the King of Cyprus to construct ships for the Egyptian navy.[3] By the time of the Battle of the Sea Peoples, the Egyptians had become experts in constructing ships. Their ships had a single mast with a horizontal square sail on it. One bow was usually decorated with a human skull being crushed by a lion’s head.[4] These ships often had two rudder oars, since built in rudders were not invented at the time. At the same time, they could have been as heavy as 70 or 80 tonnes with around 50 rowers.[5]
Purpose[edit]
The Egyptian navy had four main purposes:
- the transportation of troops and supplies to certain areas that required them,
- to use as a platform from which archers would fire their arrows upon the enemy that were land or sea-based,
- to destroy other enemy ships,
- to carry prisoners.
Transportation[edit]
The Egyptian landscape is often considered harsh and very difficult to travel through except for the few miles that surround the Nile Valley. For this reason, using ships as a means of communication and transportation proved to be very effective. The Egyptians had used their navy for the first and most important purpose in this manner. They would send soldiers to areas throughout Egypt whose jobs it was to quell rebellions or to repel attackers.[6]This is very evident in the use of the ships to transport food and supplies to the forts that were stationed in the south near Nubia. These forts often were placed in difficult areas and so in order to feed themselves they relied heavily upon the rations that they received from cities such as Thebes and Karnak. This purpose was always used by the Egyptian from the very start of their civilization to the time of the New Kingdom where they would resupply their troops based in the Levantine region via the sea.[7]
Platforms[edit]
This is especially noticeable in the reliefs of the Medinet Habu temple that show the great attempted invasion of Egypt by the Sea Peoples. This relief shows us the Egyptian small yet maneuverable ships fighting against the larger yet slower ships of the Sea People.[8] It portrays the ships as platforms from which archers and slingers can pepper down the enemy from. Having such fast and maneuverable ships enabled the Egyptians to constantly harass the enemy at a range while at the same time withdraw to safety and attack from a different side. At this stage, this purpose existed mostly in the New Kingdom era, although we are led to believe that it was used during the Second Intermediate Period during the siege of Avaris by Ahmose.
Boardings of people[edit]
This purpose probably took place more during the New Kingdom when the situation arose for the Egyptians to disable any threats to their sea. It is also most visible to us from the temple relief of Medinat Habu in which it portrays the Egyptian Marines on board the ships attempting to board the vessels of the Sea Peoples. Upon boarding them, most of the crew on the Egyptian ships would arm themselves and fight in close quarter combat through the use of spears, shields, and battle axes. The Egyptian never had a specific Marine unit, but rather it was known that anyone on board is equally capable of both maintaining the ship and fighting at the same time. The Egyptians would board other ships using the most common method of using grappling hooks to pull in a ship after peppering them with arrows and sling shots.[9]
[edit]
While naval battles are not often recounted since there was no distinction between the navy and the army in ancient Egypt, we do gather some information every now and then of battles that were fought through the use of ships.
The siege of Avaris[edit]
One such example is when Ahmose led a siege against the Hyksos city of Avaris at the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th Dynasty. One account of the siege comes from a soldier and sailor that fought in the siege named Ahmose son of Ibana. In his accounts, he states how he was stationed on a ship called the Northern in which he sailed with the Egyptian army towards Avaris. After fighting a battle, they laid siege to the city and surrounded it. The siege of Avaris must have been a combined naval and land based attack since Ahmose son of Ibana claimed to have "fought in the canal against Pezedku of Avaris".[10]
The war against the Sea Peoples[edit]
This war is perhaps the most famous Egyptian war heavily involving the naval strength of the empire, and it is the first to ever be well documented. During the reign of Rameses III which was in 1182 BCE to 1151 BCE, a new threat arose to challenge the Egyptians in a different way than what they were used to.[11] A new people called the Sea Peoples were arriving in the Levantine region and destroying its cities. Already the once mighty Hittites were destroyed by these people of mysterious origin and it soon became obvious that Egypt with all of its wealth would be next.[12] Rameses III prepared a mighty fleet and planned to repulse the Sea Peoples in the Nile. In the account from the temple relief of Medinat Habu Ramises states, "I prepared the river-mouth like a strong wall with warships, galleys, and light craft. They were completely equipped both fore and aft with brave fighters carrying their weapons, and infantry of all the pick of Egypt."[13]
In that relief, it portrays the enemy with their tall ships all falling into the Nile and pierced by the arrows that were being fired from the Egyptian ships. At the same time, Rameses claims that he lured the enemy close to Nile shore where he unleashed upon them hundreds of thousands of arrows.[14] The Egyptians on their fast and nimble riverine crafts won against the maritime vessels of the Sea People, who are depicted by the Egyptians as ill equipped for ranged combat.
Conclusion[edit]
While the Egyptians were often a land based population, they quickly proved to master the art of seafaring as they learned its benefits. The Egyptian navy continued to serve the military as a transportation mechanism, an amphibious force, and at the same time an aggressive force with which to wage war. It can be said that without the successful efficiency of the Egyptian navy, the Egyptian army would not have been able to campaign as long as it wished, and therefore, Egypt's influence over the Levantine region would have been drastically reduced. The navy enabled Egyptian civilization to continue with its way of life until its ultimate slow decline.
References[edit]
- ^ Cottrell, Leonard. Warrior Pharaohs. London: Evans Brothers Limited, 1968.
- ^ Kostas, Papadoupolos. Naval Warfare. New York: Rays, 2001.
- ^ Kostas (2001)
- ^ Cottrell (1968)
- ^ Cottrell (1968)
- ^ Kostas (2001)
- ^ Kostas (2001)
- ^ Cottrell (1968)
- ^ Shaw, Ian. Egyptian warfare and weapons. Buckinghamshire: Shire Publications, 1991.
- ^ Cottrell (1968)
- ^ Shaw (1999)
- ^ Kostas (2001)
- ^ Shaw (1999)
- ^ Shaw (1999)
Further reading[edit]
- Robinson, John L. Classical Naval Warfare. Vol. 2. New York: Robin Inc., 1999.
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