The Secret of the Universe is Choice: Know Decision; http://thesecretoftheuniversechoice.blogspot.com/ (https://beingsandrice.blogspot.com/)
The strong consideration for the following information is strongly related to Cantore Arithmetic going-forward. The aspect to verb, the reality to the subject, the mathematics, the science so balanced and yet opinion has halted the fact to discuss the venue.
What gathers is relevant and what is a bulb will light the path:
Evolutionist vs. Creationist
1. homo erectus
2. born again
Presents, a Life with a Plan. My name is Karen Anastasia Placek, I am the author of this Google Blog. This is the story of my journey, a quest to understanding more than myself. The title of my first blog delivered more than a million views!! The title is its work as "The Secret of the Universe is Choice!; know decision" will be the next global slogan. Placed on T-shirts, Jackets, Sweatshirts, it really doesn't matter, 'cause a picture with my slogan is worth more than a thousand words, it's worth??.......Know Conversation!!!
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Presents, a Life with a Plan. My name is Karen Anastasia Placek, I am the author of this Google Blog. This is the story of my journey, a quest to understanding more than myself. The title of my first blog delivered more than a million views!! The title is its work as "The Secret of the Universe is Choice!; know decision" will be the next global slogan. Placed on T-shirts, Jackets, Sweatshirts, it really doesn't matter, 'cause a picture with my slogan is worth more than a thousand words, it's worth??.......Know Conversation!!!
Tested by: Dr. Louis Vuksinick, MD a Psychiatry Specialist in San Francisco, California
Score: 131
The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) is an individually administered intelligence test for children between the ages of 6 and 16. The Fifth Edition (WISC-V; Wechsler, 2014) is the most recent version.
The WISC-V takes 45 to 65 minutes to administer. It generates a Full Scale IQ (formerly known as an intelligence quotient or IQ score) that represents a child's general intellectual ability. It also provides five primary index scores, namely Verbal Comprehension Index, Visual Spatial Index, Fluid Reasoning Index, Working Memory Index, and Processing Speed Index. These indices represent a child's abilities in discrete cognitive domains. Five ancillary composite scores can be derived from various combinations of primary or primary and secondary subtests.
Five complementary subtests yield three complementary composite scores to measure related cognitive abilities. Technical papers by the publishers support other indices such as VECI, EFI, and GAI (Raiford et al., 2015). Variation in testing procedures and goals resulting in prorated score combinations or single indices can reduce time or increase testing time to three or more hours for an extended battery, including all primary, ancillary, and complementary indices.
The original WISC (Wechsler, 1949), developed by the Romanian-American psychologist David Wechsler, Ph.D., was an adaptation of several of the subtests that made up the Wechsler–Bellevue Intelligence Scale (Wechsler, 1939), but also featured several subtests designed specifically for it. The subtests were organized into Verbal and Performance scales and provided scores for Verbal IQ (VIQ), Performance IQ (PIQ), and Full Scale IQ (FSIQ).
Each successive edition has been re-normed to compensate for the Flynn effect, ensuring not only that the norms do not become outdated, which is suggested to result in inflated scores on intelligence measures, but that they are representative of the current population (Flynn, 1984, 1987, 1999; Matarazzo, 1972). Additional updates and refinements include changes to the questions to make them less biased against minorities and females and updated materials to make them more useful in the administration of the test. A revised edition was published in 1974 as the WISC-R (Wechsler, 1974), featuring the same subtests. However, the age range was changed from 5–15 to 6–16.
The third edition was published in 1991 (WISC-III; Wechsler, 1991) and brought with it a new subtest as a measure of processing speed. Rather than VIQ, PIQ, and FSIQ scores, four new index scores were introduced: the Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI), the Perceptual Organization Index (POI), the Freedom from Distractability Index (FDI), and the Processing Speed Index (PSI).
The WISC-IV was produced in 2003. The WISC-V was published in 2014. The WISC-V has a total of 21 subtests. It yields 15 composite scores.
The WISC is one test in a suite of Wechsler intelligence scales. Subjects 16 and over are tested with the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), and children ages two years and six months to seven years and seven months are tested with the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI). There is some overlap between tests: children aged 6 years 0 months through 7 years 7 months can complete the WPPSI or the WISC; children aged 16 can complete the WISC-V or the WAIS-IV. Different floor effect and ceiling effect can be achieved using the different tests, allowing for a greater understanding of the child's abilities or deficits. This means that a 16-year-old adolescent who has an intellectual disability may be tested using the WISC-V so that the clinician may see the floor of their knowledge (the lowest level).
There are five primary index scores, the Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI), Visual Spatial Index (VSI), Fluid Reasoning Index (FRI), Working Memory Index (WMI), and Processing Speed Index (PSI). Two subtests must be administered to obtain each of the primary index scores. The Full Scale IQ is derived from 7 of the 10 primary subtests: Both Verbal Comprehension subtests, one Visual Spatial subtest, two Fluid Reasoning subtests, one Working Memory subtest, and one Processing Speed subtest. Verbal Comprehension and Fluid Reasoning are weighted more heavily in the Full Scale IQ to reflect the importance of crystallized and fluid abilities in modern intelligence models (Wechsler, 2014).
The VCI is derived from the Similarities and Vocabulary subtests. The Verbal Comprehension scale subtests are described below:
The VCI is an overall measure of verbal concept formation (the child's ability to verbally reason) and is influenced by semantic knowledge.
The VSI is derived from the Block Design and Visual Puzzles subtests. These subtests are as follows:
The VSI is a measure of visual spatial processing.
The FRI is derived from the Matrix Reasoning and Figure Weights subtests. The Fluid Reasoning scale subtests are described below:
The FRI is a measure of inductive and quantitative reasoning.
The WMI is derived from the Digit Span and Picture Span subtests. The Working Memory scale's subtests are as follows:
The WMI is a measure of working memory ability.
The PSI is derived from the Coding and Symbol Search subtests. The Processing Speed subtests are as follows:
The PSI is a measure of processing speed.
The 2014 publication of the WISC-V contained five ancillary index scores that may be derived for special clinical purposes or situations: the Quantitative Reasoning Index (QRI), the Auditory Working Memory Index (AWMI), the Nonverbal Index (NVI), the General Ability Index (GAI), and the Cognitive Proficiency Index (CPI). Three of these ancillary index scores (NVI, GAI, and CPI) can be derived from the 10 primary subtests. The QRI and the AWMI can each be derived by administering one additional subtest from subtests that are within one of the five primary scales (Verbal Comprehension scale, Visual Spatial Index, Fluid Reasoning scale, Working Memory scale, and Processing Speed scale) but are not primary. The set of these subtests is termed secondary subtests (Wechsler, 2014).
Two ancillary index scores termed the expanded index scores were released the year after the 2014 publication, so are not included in the published manuals. These are the Verbal (Expanded Crystallized) Index (VECI) and the Expanded Fluid Index (EFI) (Raiford, Drozdick, Zhang, & Zhou, 2015).
Three complementary index scores are available to measure cognitive processes that are important to achievement and are sensitive to specific learning disabilities. The complementary index scores are the Naming Speed Index (NSI), designed to measure rapid automatized naming, and the Symbol Translation Index, designed to measure visual-verbal associative memory, which is sometimes termed visual-verbal paired associate learning in the published literature (Wechsler, 2014). The Naming Speed scale contains Naming Speed Literacy, which measures rapid automatic naming, and Naming Speed Literacy, which is the only commercially published and normed measure of rapid quantity naming, also known as subitizing. Naming Speed Quantity is uniquely sensitive to math achievement and specific learning disabilities in mathematics (Raiford et al., 2016; Wechsler, Raiford, & Holdnack, 2014).
The WISC–V normative sample consisted of 2,200 children between the ages of 6 and 16 years 11 months. In addition to the normative sample, a number of special group samples were collected, including the following: children identified as intellectually gifted, children with mild or moderate intellectual disability, children with specific learning disorders (reading, written expression, and math), children with ADHD, children with disruptive behavior, children who are English Language Learners, children with autism spectrum disorder with language impairment, children with autism spectrum disorder without language impairment, and children with traumatic brain injuries.
The WISC–V is also linked with measures of achievement, adaptive behavior, executive function, and behavior and emotion. Equivalency studies were also conducted within the Wechsler family of tests and with a Kaufman test (the KABC-II) enabling comparisons between various intellectual ability scores over the lifespan. A number of concurrent studies were conducted to examine the scale's reliability and validity. Evidence of the convergent and discriminant validity of the WISC–V is provided by correlational studies with the following instruments: WISC–IV, WPPSI–IV, WAIS–IV, WASI–II, KABC–II, KTEA–3, WIAT–III, NEPSY–II, Vineland–II, and BASC–II. Evidence of construct validity was provided through a series of factor-analytic studies and mean comparisons using matched samples of special group and nonclinical children.
The WISC is used not only as an intelligence test, but as a clinical tool. Some practitioners use the WISC as part of an assessment to diagnose attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and learning disabilities, for example. This is usually done through a process called pattern analysis, in which the various subtests' scores are compared to one another (ipsative scoring) and clusters of unusually low scores in relation to the others are searched for. David Wechsler himself suggested this in 1958.[1]
However, the research does not show this to be an effective way to diagnose ADHD or learning disabilities.[2] The vast majority of children with ADHD do not display certain subtests substantially below others, and many children who display such patterns do not have ADHD. Other patterns for children with learning disabilities show a similar lack of usefulness of the WISC as a diagnostic tool.[3] Although, when Cattell Horn Carrol (CHC) theory is used to interpret the WISC–V subtests, things tend to make a great deal more sense.
When diagnosing children, best practice suggests that a multi-test battery, i.e., multi-factored evaluation, should be used as learning problems, attention, and emotional difficulties can have similar symptoms, co-occur, or reciprocally influence each other. For example, children with learning difficulties can become emotionally distraught and thus have concentration difficulties, begin to exhibit behavior problems, or both. Children with ADHD may show learning difficulties because of their attentional problems or also have learning disorder or disability (or have nothing else). In short, while diagnosis of any childhood or adult difficulty should never be made based on IQ alone (or interview, physician examination, parent report, other test etc. for that matter) the cognitive ability test can help rule out, in conjunction with other tests and sources of information, other explanations for problems, uncover co-morbid problems, and be a rich source of information when properly analyzed and care is taken to avoid relying simply on the single summary IQ score (Sattler, Dumont, & Coalson, 2016).
The WISC can be used to show discrepancies between a child's intelligence and his/her performance at school (and it is this discrepancy that school psychologists look for when using this test). In a clinical setting, learning disabilities can be diagnosed through a comparison of intelligence scores and scores on an achievement test, such as the Woodcock Johnson III or Wechsler Individual Achievement Test II. If a child's achievement is below what would be expected given their level of intellectual functioning (as derived from an IQ test such as the WISC-IV), then a learning disability may be present. Other psychologists and researchers believe that the WISC can be used to understand the complexities of the human mind by examining each subtest and can, indeed, help in diagnosing learning disabilities.
Subsequently, the WISC can be used as part of an assessment battery to identify intellectual giftedness, learning difficulties, and cognitive strengths and weaknesses. When combined with other measures such as the Adaptive Behavior Assessment System–II (ABAS–II; Harrison & Oakland, 2003) and the Children's Memory Scale (CMS; Cohen, 1997) its clinical utility can be enhanced. Combinations such as these provide information on cognitive and adaptive functioning, both of which are required for the proper diagnosis of learning difficulties and learning and memory functioning resulting in a richer picture of a child's cognitive functioning.
The WISC–V is linked with the Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement–Third Edition (KTEA–3; Kaufman & Kaufman, 2014) and the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-III (WIAT–III; Pearson, 2009), a measure of academic achievement. This linkage provides information on both cognitive ability and academic achievement in children. Tests of intellectual functioning are used extensively in school settings to evaluate specific cognitive deficits that may contribute to low academic achievement, and to predict future academic achievement. Using the WISC–V in such a manner provides information for educational intervention purposes, such as interventions that address learning difficulties and cognitive deficits.
The WISC–V can also be used to assess a child's cognitive development, with respect to the child's chronological age. Using such comparisons with other sources of data, the WISC can contribute information concerning a child's developmental and psychological well-being. Very high or very low scores may suggest contributing factors for adjustment difficulties in social contexts that present problems in accepting such developmental diversity (or that cannot accommodate more than a certain level of high cognitive functioning).
A FSIQ score of 135 or above is accepted for admission to Intertel, a society for the intellectually gifted.[4]
WISC has been translated or adapted to many languages, and norms have been established for a number of countries, including Spanish, Portuguese (Brazil and Portugal), Arabic, Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish, Finnish, Czech, Croatian, French (France and Canada), German (Germany, Austria and Switzerland), English (United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Australia), Welsh, Dutch, Japanese, Chinese (Hong Kong), Korean (South Korea), Greek, Romanian, Indonesian, Slovenian and Italian. Separate norms are established with each translation. (Norway uses the Swedish norms). India uses the Malin's Intelligence Scale for Indian Children (MISIC), an adaptation of WISC by Arthur J. Malin.[5] However, the norms of MISIC are outdated (have not been updated since 50 years) and many Clinical Psychologists do not use this test in their practice due to possible errors in measured IQs because of Flynn effect. Being from a developing nation, Indian children have undergone numerous changes in their intellectual abilities over the past 5 decades, which makes the application of MISIC redundant, though some psychometricians suggest that such changes are minor, hence the test is still applicable. Instead of MISIC, the fourth edition of WISC that was adapted and standardized for India in 2012, is more commonly accepted and used by clinicians. Being the most widely used test for intelligence assessment in India, MISIC still has its supporters, and will continue to be used by clinicians all over the country, owing to which its norms must be updated. The Japanese version of the WISC-IV was developed by Japanese psychologists Kazuhiko Ueno, Kazuhiro Fujita, Hisao Maekawa, Toshinori Ishikuma, Hitoshi Dairoku, and Osamu Matsuda.
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Presents, a Life with a Plan. My name is Karen Anastasia Placek, I am the author of this Google Blog. This is the story of my journey, a quest to understanding more than myself. The title of my first blog delivered more than a million views!! The title is its work as "The Secret of the Universe is Choice!; know decision" will be the next global slogan. Placed on T-shirts, Jackets, Sweatshirts, it really doesn't matter, 'cause a picture with my slogan is worth more than a thousand words, it's worth??.......Know Conversation!!!
After traveling to The Mission in San Francisco, California, I was reminded of the mission itself. To engage the governor is to comprehend the most recent announcement, and to engage proposal.
The funds have indeed been brought to the knowledge of the public at-large; this product management has had many involved and few with relief to the current problems that plague the State of California in the United States of America.
Most recently my composition returned a letter to the President of the United States of America making this the opportunity to return more than a seat. This aspect to honesty is simply the reservation to what is the balance of paper to envelope versus the etrade. Economy is a keel to this boat and the wheel is timing as the belt is not smitten. To engage thought to prowess and to acknowledge the work done in Fresno, California, and to understand that plans change and schedules are written it is the signature piece that replies.
This product management of the State of California brings tourism to the tourist and employs the native to the beauty of stops that would never have brought economy to its feet. To applaud such prowess is held at only the comprehension as the hands must understand the Fresno, California reserve but may move the map to chart a more reasonable schedule to the return of money to the bottom line of the State of California, U.S.A.
My aspect leans toward my town, San Francisco, California: Chinatown! To bring The Fillmore to repair and to employ the genius of The Mission to what is a Japantown example of my city is able to complete with City Works: I.E.: Cal Trans.
For such, the houses from The Fillmore make the return the match as the adobe is of great interest to me and I would enjoy the process to more that the paintings on the murals in The Mission. To enjoy this hinge as in Stone Henge it is The Mission with district meetings that would plan the sidewalk to the amazing architecture that has employed the interest worldwide using Chinatown as a template. This plan is to invoke the money to the people and not to the banks. With this plan the product is not the people it is the tourism driven by the amazement of not Las Vegas in its employment of the Mall of America, it is the driven amazement of personal investment while those of us that are either native or born and raised here enjoy the beauty of growth and the invitation of international travel to visit these most amazing places; being present (to be explained) as this is only a synopsis in short.
For the fact: Mission to the Fillmore, Fillmore to the Tenderloin (The Ferry Building) and travel to the Rigid Airship to engage the small towns in our State of California and to relieve the overburdened roads in Yosemite and to bring fruition to smaller towns that are of the Interstates, Freeways and Highways. With this plan and the working of the kinks we may produce a plan for the bureau of federal control of air travel and perhaps bring Nevada to a new industry saying that your State is rarely appreciated and not positioning anything other than a landing platform. This would be only a start, to increase would involve the reports of what is needed to improve this proposal and this would all be without the Light Rail or the trail of such improvements that the very trace would change the incredible and also repeat the railroad (modem) that had been torn out in the first part of the last century, date adjusted.
This is a rough draft.
A rigid airship is a type of airship (or dirigible) in which the envelope is supported by an internal framework rather than by being kept in shape by the pressure of the lifting gas within the envelope, as in blimps (also called pressure airships) and semi-rigid airships.[1][2] Rigid airships are often commonly called Zeppelins, though this technically refers only to airships built by the Luftschiffbau Zeppelin company.
In 1900, Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin successfully performed the maiden flight of his first airship; further models quickly followed. Prior to the First World War, Germany was a world leader in the field, largely attributable to the work of von Zeppelin and his Luftschiffbau Zeppelin company. During the conflict, rigid airships were tasked with various military duties, which included their participation in Germany's strategic bombing campaign. Numerous rigid airships were produced and employed with relative commercial success between the 1900s and the late 1930s. The heyday of the rigid airship was abruptly ended by the destruction of the Hindenburg by fire on 6 May 1937. The disaster not only destroyed the biggest zeppelin in the world but caused considerable reputation damage to rigid airships in general. Amid widespread public safety concerns, several nations opted to permanently ground their existing rigid airships and scrap them in subsequent years.
Rigid airships consist of a structural framework usually covered in doped fabric containing a number of gasbags or cells containing a lifting gas. In the majority of airships constructed before the Second World War, highly flammable hydrogen was used for this purpose, resulting in many airships such as the British R101 and the German Hindenburg being lost in catastrophic fires. The inert gas helium was used by American airships in the 1920s and 1930s; it is also used in all modern airships.[citation needed]
Although airships rely on the difference in density between the lifting gas and the surrounding air to stay aloft they can also generate a certain amount of aerodynamic lift by using their elevators to fly in a nose-up attitude. Similarly, by flying nose-down down-force can be generated: this may be done to prevent the airship rising above its pressure height. Typically airships start a flight with their gasbags inflated to about 95% capacity: as the airship gains height the lifting gas expands as the surrounding atmospheric pressure reduces. The height at which the internal pressure of the gasbags equals external atmospheric pressure is called the pressure height: if the airship climbs beyond this it is necessary to vent gas in order to prevent the gasbags' rupturing.
By 1874, several people had conceived of a rigid dirigible (in contrast to non-rigid powered airships which had been flying since 1852). The Frenchman Joseph Spiess had patented a rigid airship design in 1873 but failed to get funding.[3] Another such individual was the German Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin, who had outlined his thoughts of a rigid airship in diary entries from 25 March 1874 through to 1890 when he resigned from the military.[4] David Schwarz had thought about building an airship in the 1880s and had probably started design work in 1891: by 1892, he had started construction.[5]
However, Schwarz's all-aluminium airship would not perform any test flights until after his death in 1897. Schwarz had secured help in its construction from the industrialist Carl Berg and the Prussian Airship Battalion; there was an exclusive contract in place between Schwarz and Berg, thus Count Zeppelin was obliged to reach a legal agreement with Schwarz's heirs to obtain aluminium from Carl Berg, although the two men's designs were different and independent from each other: the Schwarz design lacked the separate internal gasbags that characterise rigid airships.[6] Using Berg's aluminium, von Zeppelin was able to start building his first airship, the LZ 1, in 1899.[7]
During July 1900, Ferdinand von Zeppelin completed LZ 1.[7] Constructed in a floating shed on Lake Constance, it was 128.02 m (420 ft) long, 11.73 m (38 ft 6 in) in diameter with a volume of 11,298 m3 (399,000 ft 3) and was powered by a pair of 11 kW (14 hp) Daimler engines. The first flight, lasting 20 minutes, was made on 2 July, but ended with the airship being damaged. After repairs and modifications, two further flights were conducted in October 1900.[8] However, these initial experiments failed to attract any investors, and Count Zeppelin did not complete his next design, LZ 2, until 1906. This performed only a single flight on 17 January 1906, during which both engines failed and the zeppelin was compelled to conduct a forced landing in the Allgäu mountains; it was subsequently damaged beyond repair by a storm.[9] Undeterred, another zeppelin with a largely similar design, the LZ 3, was quickly completed and put into flight.[10]
LZ 3 proved to have performed sufficiently to interest the German Army, who opted to purchase and operate it as the Z I until 1913.[10] Even so, the German Army observed that they required an airship that would be capable of flying for 24 hours. As this was beyond the capability of LZ 3, it was decided to design and construct a larger craft, LZ 4. This was 136 m (446 ft) long, 12.95 m (42 ft 6 in) in diameter and powered by two Daimler engines delivering a total of 156 kW (210 hp).[11] LZ 4 first flew on 20 June 1908, and on 1 July made a spectacular 12 hour cross-country flight during which it was flown over Switzerland to Zürich and then back to Lake Constance. The 24-hour trial was started on 4 August, but was interrupted by the failure of one of the engines. It was moored near Echterdingen in order to make repairs but a storm arose, causing it to break away from its moorings, after which it was blown into some trees and caught fire.[12] The disaster took place in front of an estimated 40 to 50 thousand spectators,[13] and produced an extraordinary wave of nationalistic support for von Zeppelin's work. Unsolicited donations from the public poured in: enough had been received within 24 hours to rebuild the airship, and the eventual total was over 6 million marks were donated, finally giving Count Zeppelin a sound financial base for his experiments.[14]
Seven zeppelins were operated by DELAG, the first airline in the world.[15] DELAG was founded at the suggestion of Alfred Colsman, the business manager of Zeppelin Luftschiffbau, seeking to capitalise on the German public's enthusiastic interest in the zeppelin by permitting them onboard passenger-carrying airships as a commercial venture; von Zeppelin distanced himself from this commercialisation, reportedly regarding such efforts to have been a vulgar tradesman's enterprise.[16] Commencing such flights in 1910, DELAG was initially limited to offering pleasure cruises in the vicinity of the existing zeppelin bases.[17]
DELAG soon received more capable zeppelins, such as the LZ 10 Schwaben, which would carry a total of 1,553 paying passengers during its career, which involved not only pleasure flights but a number of long-distance flights to destinations such as Frankfurt, Düsseldorf, and Berlin.[18] The company's airships were also used by the Imperial German Navy for crew training, with the Navy crews operating passenger flights.[19] By July 1914, one month prior to the start of the First World War, DELAG's Zeppelins had transported a total of 34,028 passengers on 1,588 commercial flights; over these trips, the fleet had accumulated 172,535 kilometres across 3,176 hours of flight.[20][21] Commercial operations came to an abrupt end in Germany due to the outbreak of the First World War, after which DELAG's airships were taken over by the German Army for wartime service.
During 1911, the first rigid airship produced by the German Schütte-Lanz company was flown. Designed by the naval architect Johann Schütte, the Schütte-Lanz introduced a number of technical innovations. The shape of the hull was more streamlined than the early Zeppelin craft, the hulls of which were cylindrical for most of their length, simplifying construction at the expense of aerodynamic efficiency. Other Schütte-Lanz innovations included the use of an axial cable running the length of the airship to reduce additional stressing caused by the partial deflation of a single gasbag, the introduction of venting tubes to carry any hydrogen vented to the top of the ship and simplified cruciform tail surfaces.
The British Royal Navy took an early interest in rigid airships and ordered His Majesty's Airship No. 1 in 1909 from Vickers Limited at Barrow-in-Furness. It was 512 ft (156.06 m) long with two Wolseley engines. It was completed in 1911 but broke in two before its first flight and was scrapped.[22] This caused a temporary halt to British airship development, but in 1913 an order was placed for HMA No. 9r. Due to various factors, including difficulties in acquiring the necessary materials, it was not completed until April 1917.[23][24]
France's only rigid airship was designed by Alsatian engineer Joseph Spiess and constructed by Société Zodiac at the Aérodrome de Saint-Cyr-l'École.[25] It had a framework of hollow wooden spars braced with wire, and was given the name Zodiac XII but had the name SPIESS painted along the side of the envelope.[26] It was 113 m (370 ft 9 in) long, with a diameter of 13.5 m (44 ft 3 in) and was powered by a single Chenu 200 hp engine that drove two propellers. It first flew on 13 April 1913, but it became clear that it was underpowered and required more lift, so it was lengthened to 140 m (459 ft 4 in) to accommodate three more gas cells and a second engine was added. Spiess then presented the airship to the French government as a gift.[27] After further trials it was not accepted by the French military, because their view was that smaller non-rigid types would be more effective.[28] The Spiess airship seems to have been broken-up in 1914.
During the First World War, the Zeppelin company constructed a total of 95 military airships. These were operated by both the German Navy and the Army. German military airship stations had been established before the conflict and on September 2–3, 1914, the Zeppelin LZ 17 dropped three 200 lb bombs on Antwerp in Belgium. In 1915, a bombing campaign against England using airships was initiated, the first raid taking place on 19 January 1915 when two airships dropped bombs on Norfolk. On 31 May 1915 the first bombs fell on London. Raids continued throughout 1915 and continued into 1916. On the night of September 2–3, 1916 the first German airship was shot down over English soil by Lt. Leefe Robinson flying a BE 2c. This and subsequent successes by England’s defences led to the development of new Zeppelin designs capable of operating at greater altitudes, but even when these came into service the Germans only carried out a small number of airship raids on Britain during the rest of the war, carrying on the campaign using aeroplanes and reserving their airships for their primary duty of naval patrols over the North Sea and the Baltic. The last casualties occurred on 12 April 1918.[29]
The first British airship to be completed during the war was No. 9r, which was first flown at the end of 1916 and was used for experimental and training purposes.[23] By then, the war against U-Boats was at its height and 9r was quickly followed by four airships of the 23 Class, two R23X Class and two R31 Class,[30] the last being based on the Schütte-Lanz principle of wooden construction, and remain the largest mobile wooden structures ever built.[31] The only significant combat success of these airships, aside from their deterrent effect, was assistance in the destruction of SM UB-115 by R29 in September 1918.[32]
By the end of the conflict, two British airships of the R33 Class were nearing completion. R33 became a civilian airship, finishing her career doing experimental work. The R34 became the first aircraft to complete a return Atlantic crossing in July 1919 but was severely damaged in January 1921 and was subsequently scrapped.[33] R.35, a unique admiralty design, was almost finished when work was stopped in early 1919.[34] R36 and R.37 were stretched R.35s. R.36 was completed after the war as a civilian airship registered as G-FAAF. R.36 had two engines from the German L71. Modifications for passenger service involved installing a 131 foot long combined control and passenger gondola to accommodate 50 passengers.[35] R.36 suffered a structural failure of one horizontal and one vertical fin. It was repaired and served to aid the police in traffic control for the Ascot race in 1921. R.36 was damaged in a mooring accident in 1921, and while repaired R.36 never flew again. Retained for possible use as a commercial airship R.36 was broken up in 1926.[36] Four airships of the R38 Class were started but only one completed: it was sold to the US Navy and renamed ZR-2. In June 1921 it broke up in the air over Kingston-upon-Hull before it could be delivered, killing 44 of its Anglo-American crew. The last airship that had been ordered amid the First World War was the R80; it was completed in 1920 but was tested to destruction in the following year after it was found to have no commercial use.[37]
After the end of the First World War I, Luftschiffbau Zeppelin resumed building and operating civilian airships. Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany were prohibited from building airships with a capacity in excess of 28,000 m3 (1,000,000 cu ft), greatly limiting the company's scope.[38] However, a pair of small passenger airships, LZ 120 Bodensee and a sister ship LZ 121 Nordstern were built, intended for use between Berlin and Freidrichshafen. They were subsequently confiscated and handed over to Italy and France as war reparations in place of wartime zeppelins which had been sabotaged by their crews in 1919. The Zeppelin company was saved from extinction by an order for an airship, the USS Los Angeles (ZR-3), being placed by the US Navy; this airship conducted its first flight on 27 August 1924.[39] The Goodyear-Zeppelin partnership would continue up until the outbreak of the Second World War.[40]
In 1924, the British Government initiated the Imperial Airship Scheme, a plan to launch airship routes throughout the British Empire. This involved the construction of two large airships, the R100 and R101, paid for by the government. The R100 was privately built by Vickers-Armstrongs using existing commercial practices, with a design team led by Barnes Wallis, who had previously co-designed the R80.[41] After her first flight in December 1929, R100 made a successful round trip to Quebec in Canada in July and August the following year.[42] The competing R101 was designed and built by the Air Ministry and was supposed to encourage new approaches. R101 was severely overweight, largely due to the decision to use diesel engines to reduce fire risk, and it was decided to lengthen the airship's hull to increase lift. In October 1930, R101 set off to Karachi on its first overseas flight but crashed in northern France in bad weather killing 48 of the 54 people on board, including the Secretary of State for Air and most of the design team.[43] Following this disaster, the R100 was grounded and was finally scrapped in November 1931, marking the end of British interest in rigid airships.[44]
During 1925, the Versailles restrictions were be relaxed by the Allies, enabling Dr Hugo Eckener, the chairman of Zeppelin Luftschiffbau, to pursue his vision of developing a zeppelin suitable for launching an intercontinental air passenger service.[45] The sum of 2.5 million Reichsmarks (ℛℳ, the equivalent of US$600,000 at the time,[46] or $9 million in 2018 dollars[47]), was raised via public subscription, while the German government also granted over ℛℳ 1 million ($4 million) for the project.[48][49] Accordingly, Zeppelin Lufftschiffbau began construction of the first of a new generation of airships, the LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin. On 18 September 1928, the completed airship flew for the first time.[50] Shortly thereafter, DELAG commenced operations with the Graf Zeppelin, being enabled to launch regular, nonstop, transatlantic flights several years before airplanes would be capable of sufficient range to cross the ocean in either direction without stopping. During 1931, the Graf Zeppelin began offering regular scheduled passenger service between Germany and South America, a route which was continued up until 1937. During its career, Graf Zeppelin crossed the South Atlantic a total of 136 times.[51] The airship also performed numerous record-breaking flights, including a successful circumnavigation of the globe.[52]
The United States rigid airship program was based at Lakehurst Naval Air station, New Jersey. USS Shenandoah (ZR-1) was the first rigid airship constructed in America, and served from 1923 to 1925, when it broke up in mid-air in severe weather, killing 14 members of its crew.[53] USS Los Angeles (ZR-3) was a German airship built for the United States in 1924. The ship was grounded in 1931, due to the Depression, but was not dismantled for over 5 years. A pair of large airships, the Akron and Macon, that both functioned as flying aircraft carriers were procured by the US Navy.[54] However, they were both destroyed in separate accidents. the Akron was flown into the sea in bad weather and broke up, resulting in the deaths of over seventy people, including one of the US Navy's proponents of airships, Rear Admiral William A. Moffett.[55] Macon also ended up in the sea when it flew into heavy weather with unrepaired damage from an earlier incident, but the introduction of life-jackets following the loss of the Akron meant only two lives were lost.[56][57]
LZ 129 Hindenburg carried passengers, mail and freight on regularly scheduled commercial services from Germany to North and South America. However, such services were brought to an abrupt end by the Hindenburg disaster of 1937. While the Hindenburg's sister ship, the LZ 130 Graf Zeppelin II, was completed, it would only perform thirty European test and government-sponsored flights before being grounded permanently. During 1938, Luftschiffbau Zeppelin was compelled to terminate Zeppelin manufacturing, while all operations of existing airships was ceased within two years.[58] The frames of Graf Zeppelin and Graf Zeppelin II, along with scrap material from the Hindenburg, were subsequently scrapped that same year for their materials, which were used to fulfil wartime demands for fixed-wing military aircraft for the Luftwaffe.[59]
Following the Hindenburg disaster, the Zeppelin company resolved to use helium in their future passenger airships. However, by this time, Europe was well on the path to the Second World War, and the United States, the only country with substantial helium reserves, refused to sell the necessary gas. Commercial international aviation was limited during the war, so development of new airships was halted. Although several companies, including Goodyear, proposed post-war commercial designs, these were largely to no avail.[60] At an Air Ministry post-war planning session in 1943, a R.104 was proposed to fulfill the Air Ministry Specification C.18/43. Despite the presence of two airship stalwarts, Nevil Shute and Wing Commander T.R. Cave-Brown-Cave the airship was not adopted. The proposed R.104 was described by Lord Beaverbrook as "A pretty face, but no good in the kitchen." The decision was to develop the Bristol Brabazon to meet C.18/43.[61] The Brabazon was a much ballyhooed failure of the post war period. Following the rapid advances in aviation during and after World War II, fixed-wing heavier-than-air aircraft, able to fly much faster than rigid airships, became the favoured method of international air travel.
The last rigid airships designed and built were built in the 1960s. The AEREON III was constructed in Mercer County, New Jersey in the mid-1960s. It was to utilize the method of "propulsion" developed and demonstrated by Doctor Solomon Andrews in the 1860s as well as an aft mounted engine. The AEREON III which had three side-by-side hulls flipped over during taxi tests and was never repaired. A replacement, the AEREON 26 with a delta configuration was constructed and flight tested in the early 1970s. The test program ended due to the expiration of the life time of the drone engine. It was last reported hangared at the Trenton-Robbinsvile Airport in New Jersey. It is not known whether it still exists after almost 50 years. [62]
The Zeppelin company refers to their NT ship as a rigid, but the envelope shape is retained in part by super-pressure of the lifting gas, and so the NT is more correctly classified as semi-rigid.[1]
Aeroscraft was certified airworthy by the FAA in September 2013 and has begun flight testing.[63]
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