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Japanese bondage

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about consensual sexual bondage. For other uses, see Slavery in Japan.
Kinbaku (緊縛?) means 'tight binding' Kinbaku-bi (緊縛美?) which literally means 'the beauty of tight binding'. Kinbaku is a Japanese style of bondage or BDSM which involves tying up the bottom using simple yet visually intricate patterns, usually with several pieces of thin rope (often jute, hemp or linen and generally around 6 mm in diameter, but sometimes as small as 4 mm, and between 7 – 8 m long). In Japanese, this natural-fibre rope is known as 'asanawa'; the Japanese vocabulary does not make a distinction between hemp and jute. The allusion is to the use of hemp rope for restraining prisoners, as a symbol of power, in the same way that stocks or manacles are used in a WesternBDSM context.[1] The word shibari came into common use in the West at some point in the 1990s to describe the bondage art Kinbaku. Shibari (縛り?) is a Japanese word that literally means "Decorativley Tie".[2]

Contents

   [hide] 
  • 1'Kinbaku' vs. 'shibari'
  • 2Rope types
  • 3Aesthetics of Japanese bondage
  • 4Shibari in contemporary art
  • 5History
  • 6Technique
  • 7Glossary
  • 8Kinbaku patterns
  • 9Topics
  • 10References
  • 11Further reading
  • 12External links

'Kinbaku' vs. 'shibari'[edit]

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2014)
There is much discussion about the distinction between shibari and kinbaku, and whether one term is more appropriate than another.
One modern distinction which is gaining popularity among westerners wanting to distinguish the terms is that shibari refers to purely artistic, aesthetic rope, whilst kinbaku refers to the artistic, connective, sensual, sexual practice as a whole. While thousands of books and articles have been written in Japanese about shibari, no one has found evidence[citation needed] of there being any thought given to the distinction between these words among Japanese practitioners of the art.
A traditional view is that the term 'shibari' is a wrong Western Japonism. The word denotes tying in Japanese, but in a generic way, and traditionally not in the context of bondage. The names for many particular ties include 'shibari', but it is not traditional to call the entire activity that way. (In the same way as there are 'Diamond Knots' and 'Portuguese Bowline Knots', but 'knotting' does not mean bondage). Instead, Kinbaku is the term for artistic or erotic tying within traditional Japanese rope bondage circles.[citation needed] This view seems to be squarely at odds with the way the word is actually used in books, periodicals, and discussions of rope bondage among Japanese.
An even more traditional view is that shibari is a term used for erotic bondage in Japan that is practically interchangeable with the term kinbaku. Itoh Seiu, generally considered one of the fathers of contemporary Japanese rope bondage used the term in the 1950s,[3] with no sign of it being a "western Japonism" as did many other well known Japanese bakushi, from the 1950s until present day, including Nureki Chimuo, Yukimura Haruki, Akechi Denki, Tsujimura Takeshi, Arisue Go, Randa Mai, Osada Steve, Miura Takumi, Nagaike Takeshi, and Minomura Kou (among countless others). One of Nurkei Chimuo's how-to video series from the 1980s, is titled Introduction to Shibari.[4]
While some claim this is a somewhat hidebound definition and the word shibari is now increasingly being re-imported from the West to Japan, as the tying communities are very much interconnected, there is no evidence to support such a conclusion as most practicing bakushi in Japan have very limited contact with the west and almost no interest in debating the meaning of words. Most Japanese kinbakushi do not object to the term shibari, as it's common vernacular in the global community.
Another explanation can be found in the linguistic roots of the two words, which share a core kanji.[5]

Rope types[edit]

In Japan the most often used type of rope is a loose laid, three strand jute rope. This rope is referred to as "Asanawa" usually translated as "hemp rope" the word 'asa' as hemp and 'nawa' as rope,[6][7][8] however this is using the more generic form of the word [hemp] referring to a range of natural fibre ropes rather than those pertaining to a particular plant. In recent history a range of rope types have been used for Kinbaku in Japan though Nawashi rarely use synthetic fibre rope and most often use jute.

Aesthetics of Japanese bondage[edit]

The aesthetics of the bound person's position is important: in particular, Japanese bondage is distinguished by its use of specific katas (forms) and aesthetic rules. Sometimes, asymmetric and often intentionally uncomfortable positions are employed. In particular, Japanese bondage is very much about the way the rope is applied and the pleasure is more in the journey than the destination. In this way the rope becomes an extension of the nawashi's hands and is used to communicate.[citation needed]
Traditional Japanese bondage techniques use natural vegetable fiber rope (hemp, jute, or linen) exclusively,[citation needed] though contemporary Japanese Masters have been working with a range of rope materials. The natural fibers easily lock to each other which means the bondage can be held together by the friction of twists and turns or very simple knots. Traditionally, multiple 6-8 meter lengths are used.[citation needed]

Shibari in contemporary art[edit]

Shibari has a strong presence in the works of some renowned contemporary artists, mainly photographers, like Nobuyoshi Araki in Japan, Jim Duvall in the United States andHikari Kesho in Europe.
In 2014, Romanian singer-songwriter NAVI released a Shibari-themed music video, "Picture Perfect".[9] The highly controversial video, directed by Marian Nica, was banned by Romanian television for its explicit erotic content.[10]

History[edit]

Naka Akira's show at Toubaku
Bondage as a sexual activity first came to notice in Japan in the late Edo period.[11] Generally recognized as "father of Kinbaku" is Seiu Ito, who started studying and researching Hojōjutsu is credited with the inception of Kinbaku, though it is noted that he drew inspiration from other art forms of the time including Kabuki theatre and Ukiyoe woodblock prints. Kinbaku became widely popular in Japan in the 1950s through magazines such as Kitan Club and Yomikiri Romance, which published the first naked bondage photographs. In the 1960s, people such as Eikichi Osada began to appear performing live SM shows often including a large amount of rope bondage, today these performers are often referred to as Nawashi (rope master) or Bakushi (from kinbakushi, meaning bondage master).
In recent years, Kinbaku has become popular in the Western BDSM scene in its own right and has also profoundly influenced bondage, combining to produce many 'fusion' styles.

Technique[edit]

Kinbaku is based on fairly specific rope patterns, many of them derived from Hojojutsu ties. Of particular importance are the Ushiro Takatekote (a type of arm box tie), which forms the basis of many Kinbaku ties, and the Ebi, or "Shrimp", which was originally designed as a torture tie and codified as part of the Edo period torture techniques.[citation needed] Today the tie is used as part of SM play and can be considered a form of Semenawa, torture rope.
Generally speaking, Kinbaku is practiced with ropes of 6–8 meters (20–26 feet) in length.[citation needed] Due to the generally different physique of Western subjects, 8 meters (26 feet) ropes are commonly used in the West.[citation needed] The rope material is usually hemp(or jute) though many other materials are in use including cotton and various synthetics. Various techniques are used to make the natural fiber ropes softer.[citation needed]

Glossary[edit]

  • kinbaku (緊縛?): (noun) literally 'tight binding'. It does not convey the meaning of sexual bondage outside SM circles. However, some experts, e.g. Kinoko Hajime and Osada Steve, make a distinction from 'shibari' in that it is used to refer to sessions with a strong emotional exchange.
  • kinbakushi (緊縛師?): (noun) kinbaku master, can be shortened to bakushi.
  • shibari (縛り?): (noun) the act of tying, binding or weaving. It does not convey the meaning of sexual bondage outside SM circles.
  • shibaru (縛る?): (verb) tie or bind with a rope
  • nawa shibari (縄縛り?): (noun) rope-tying with a rope (an incorrect, "made-up" term, does not exist in Japanese[12])
  • nawashi (縄師?): (noun) literally,"a maker of rope", but in SM circles it means a professional "rope artist"[11]

Kinbaku patterns[edit]

Most of the below have multiple variations:
  • Single wrist binding 片手首縛り Katate kubi shibari
  • Both wrists binding 両手首縛り Ryoute kubi shibari
  • Handcuff binding 手錠縛り Tejou shibari
  • Prisoner handcuff binding 連行手錠縛り Renkou tejou shibari
  • Hands behind the back binding 後ろ手縛り Ushiro te shibari
  • High hands behind the back binding 後ろ高手小手縛り(簡易型 Ushiro takate kote shibari)
  • Hands behind the head tie 後頭後ろ手縛り Koutou ushiro te shibari
  • Tasuki (kimono string) tied 襷(タスキ)縛り Tasuki (tasuki ) shibari
  • Crotch rope tie また縄縛り Mata nawa shibari
  • Turtle (diamond pattern) binding 亀甲縛り(菱縄縛り) Kikkou shibari (hishi nawa shibari)
  • Upright standing binding 直立不動一本縛り Chokuritsu fudou ippon shibari
  • Cross-legged binding 胡座 縛り Agura shibari
  • Shrimp binding 海老縛り Ebi shibari
  • Reverse shrimp binding 逆さ海老縛り Sakasa ebi shibari
  • Standing partial suspension 立ち吊り縛り Tachi tsuri shibari
  • One foot lifted partial suspension 片足上げ吊り縛り1 Kataashi age tsuri shibari
  • Hanging letter M, open leg binding M字開脚吊り縛り M ji kaikyaku tsuri shibari
  • Reverse hanging shrimp binding 逆海老吊り縛り Gyaku ebi tsuri shibari
  • Reverse prayer hands 後手 合掌 縛り - Gote Gasshou Shibari
  • Arms bound in front 前手 肘 縛り - Maete Hiji Shibari
  • Legs bound together 両足 合体 一文字 縛り - Ryouashi Gattai Ichimonji Shibari
  • Rifle tie 鉄砲 縛り - Teppou Shibari
  • High Hands on Front Tie 前方 高手 縛り - Zenpou Takate Shibari

Topics[edit]

French Shibari
Topics in Japanese bondage include:
  • Karada Japanese word used in the West for body (body harness, a "rope dress")
  • Ushiro Takate Kote Foundational form for most shibari ties, capturing the upper body / breasts and arms behind back (when ushiro) in a "U" shape behind the back
  • Kikkou - A body tie that ends with a tortoise shell design in the front upper torso.
  • Hishi A tie using diamond shapes. When done as a full body tie, it is sometimes also called hishi-kikkou. The hishi has been popularized by manga, or cartoon, art.
  • Ebi The "shrimp" tie
  • Agoura a less severe tie similar to an ebi
  • Tazuki "criss-cross harness"
  • Tanuki "racoon dog"
  • Kataashi tsuri "one-legged suspension"
  • Asymmetric bondage, a common feature of Japanese bondage
  • Tsuri suspension
  • Gyaku ebi
  • Hojojutsu

* Knew Rules As Howard Stern Must Knot No!!!

50 Way to get Eliminated - USDF

www.usdf.org/edudocs/competition/50_ways_toget_eliminated1.pdf
 
ation-licensed/UsDF-recognized dressage shows is expen- sive, and if ... Te UseF, not the UsDF, writes the rules for national-level .... (“Dummy” spurs are allowed.) 31. ... HORSE ID: Horses must wear their competitor numbers at all times.

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GENERAL RULES FOR ALL PONY CLUB SHOW JUMPING COMPETITIONS. Page No. .... Guidelines for Branch Team & Individual Competitions .. 14. (not Area or ..... The Pony Club expects competitors to wear plain dress. Any extra .... 4. SPURS.Spurs may be worn at Rallies and other events with the permission of the.

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www.chronofhorse.com › ... › Hunter/Jumper
 
 
The Chronicle of the Horse
Jul 14, 2011 - 18 posts - ‎14 authors
I personally wear spurs and carry a crop every time I ride, but I also ride ... IHSArules and can you believe that they don't allow spurs & crop to show/prep? ... I have had better luck with a crop on getting my horses forward and ...

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www.idra.org.uk/rules/
 
body protectors when competing in any jumping class (show jumping, working hunter, clear ... JUNIOR riders are NOT ALLOWED to wear SPURS in any class.

Horse Jumping 101 - Home

www.tnequinegrandprix.com/horse-jumping-101.html
 
Grand Prix Show Jumping is not for the faint of heart! The sport is best ... Time Faults: Any time a horse and rider exceed time allowed. .... A rider may also elect towear spurs or carry a crop, or stick, to encourage the horse over the fences.

[PDF]4-H Rules and Regulations for Equine Shows in Iowa

https://www.extension.iastate.edu/.../4H511CEquine...
 
 
Iowa State University
by H Safety
Auwerda, Extension animal science specialist—horses; and 4-H Horse. Advisory Committee .... and Exhibiting Requirements for County, State, and Interstate. Shows. ...... Hunt whip or crop may be .... Exhibitor wearing spurs or chaps. • Failure ...

[PDF]UNITED STATES EQUESTRIAN FEDERATION, INC ... - ushja

www.ushja.org/programs/rules/.../bod1142012_effective2or412012.pdf
 
At Federation licensed Dressage, Hunter, Jumper or Hunter/Jumper competitions, ... anywhere on the competition grounds, to wear protective headgear with harness ... Rapping the legs of a horse with the butt end of a riding crop or other implement. .... Club (ASPC) requirements for licensure according to GR1074 and have ...

[PDF]2016 UNITED STATES EQUESTRIAN FEDERATION ...

useventing.com/sites/default/files/USEA_2016_Rulebook.pdf
 
2016 United States Equestrian Federation Rule Book as a courtesy to our ... 2016 POLICIES AND GUIDELINES FOR USEA RECOGNIZED COMPETITIONS ... 2016 U.S. EQUESTRIAN FEDERATION RULES FOR EVENTING ...... horse, riding an obviously lame horse, excessive use of the whip and/or spurs or riding in an.

USEA, Eventing Refresher Course - What To Wear | United ...

useventing.com/news/eventing-refresher-course-what-wear
 
Mar 1, 2012 - For the dressage phase a coat of dark color or tweed is required ... For full explanation of spur rules please reference page 30 of the rulebook.

Show jumping - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Show_jumping
 
 
Wikipedia
Hunter bits, bridles, crops, spurs, and martingales are tightly regulated. ... of equipment, and may wear less conservative attire, so long as it stays within the rules. ... Horses are allowed a limited number of refusals before being disqualified.

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    An Independent Mind, Knot Logic

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    Karen Placek
    Presents, a Life with a Plan. My name is Karen Anastasia Placek, I am the author of this Google Blog. This is the story of my journey, a quest to understanding more than myself. The title of my first blog delivered more than a million views!! The title is its work as "The Secret of the Universe is Choice!; know decision" will be the next global slogan. Placed on T-shirts, Jackets, Sweatshirts, it really doesn't matter, 'cause a picture with my slogan is worth more than a thousand words, it's worth??.......Know Conversation!!! 
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    Sunday, April 5, 2026

    Title: Dr. Ziegler, how many Parents have a word Client of yours equating a Three, as they are also word Three are or stating word Coma?

    Coma equated word gravestone without the tomb writ,

    so write,

    so wright!!

    A unit circle is rolled across a surface; after a full revolution, the center of the circle has moved π units forwards.

    An illustration of the v 

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    Sheepwagon Office

    We've become familiar with the idea of working remotely from home, but what about working from a custom-built Sheepherder's Wagon. We replaced the bed with a desk, added built-in bookshelves and filing cabinets--then, used leather upholstery for the tufted bench seats. Add to that wiring for electricity and internet and you have the ultimate remote office on wheels. This is a great idea when you don't have extra space in your home for a home office. Plus, it won't raise your property taxes like an addition to your home does.

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    Dining Coach (Concord Stagecoach)

    When we think of a historic "dining car", we usually think of trains. But, who says you can't have a historic "dining coach". Our client wanted to provide a unique dining experience for his guests and asked us to build a Concord-style stagecoach complete with a folding table and "wine cellar" boot. Some other unique features include a mural with logo incorporated into a scenic view of the lake that the customer's home overlooks.

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    Western Style Stagecoach

    Nothing is more typical of the history of the Old West than the Concord Stagecoach. This "mail" coach as built by the original maker Abbot Downing Co. of Concord, NH, was known for its sturdy construction and long service. We build our concord stagecoaches with the same quality materials and methods of construction to insure the highest level of quality, for durability and style.

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    Eastern Style Stagecoach

    The Concord Coach was the finest road vehicle of its time–a supreme achievement of American stage building. This Eastern Style Coach is identified by the wooden front boot and open rear luggage rack. Many of the Eastern Coaches carried the yellow straw color through from the body to the undercarriage as well.

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    Henderson Mudwagon

    Using the specifications from a Henderson Mudwagon stagecoach, we recreated this stunning coach. Henderson is a well-known coachmaker renowned for building quality mudwagons with beautiful flowing lines and wide open sides-ideal for touring or parades. We customize the finishes, hardware and building components to accurately depict the historic stagecoach of the era.

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    Mudwagon Stagecoach

    While the Concord Stageoach was considered the ‘Star of the Road’, the Mud Wagon was the true work horse. The advantage of the Mud Wagon and the origin of its nickname was the lightness that enabled it to pass over frequently poor "muddy" roads or up steep mountainous slopes. The Mudwagon with its outside framing and "square" body is less expensive to build and durable in service. The body is bolted to iron rockers that, in turn, rest on leather thorough braces. These light semi-enclosed carriers are equipped with canvas or enameled leather storm curtains.

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    Yellowstone Touring Coach

    The Yellowstone Coach style was an open side sightseeing stagecoach used in National Parks to carry visitors and hotel guests on leisurely tours through the mountains. The open sides provided easy access and viewing, while the flat canopy top provided shade and some shelter from rain. These "observation" coaches and others like it were originally custom built by the Abbot-Downing Company for the YPT Co. specifically for touring Yellowstone National Park. They were later used in Yosemite Park as well.

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    Ranch Chuck Wagon

    Our original Hansen Ranch Chuck Wagons have all the style and amenities of the original Chuck Wagons used along the historic cattle trails. Built from the ground up at our shop, this design is made to handle the rigors of trail driving, while offering an historically accurate showpiece. The Ranch Chuck Wagon offers all the functionality that was originally developed by Charles Goodnight, a Texas Rancher, to haul supplies for trail crews. Our chuck wagon has a double box built of quality poplar atop a sturdy running gear with hitch equipment built to suit your application. Lazy-back seat, bows and canvas as well as a 15 gallon oak barrel all come standard on each of our Ranch Chuck Wagons. Ideal for use on working ranches and guest ranches.

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    Fifth Wheel Covered Wagon

    Our Fifth Wheel Covered Wagon offers the convenience of 5th wheel steering, rubber tires, full spring suspension, side bench passenger seating and the safety of manual and hydraulic brakes, while maintaining the authentic appeal of the wagons used on the Oregon Trail. Our design is 58" wide rather than the traditional 40" to provide ample room for a walk around driver's seat and easy passenger entry with a telescoping rear step. These wagons would be suitable for tour operations with a capacity of 12 to 16 passengers. Makes a great party wagon.

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    Prairie Schooner

    The Prairie Schooner that transported many pioneers and their possessions across the country, was the result of adaptations to the heavier Conestoga, which proved to be too heavy for emigrants to take across the mountains as they moved westward. Our traditional Prairie Schooner covered wagon has ribbed sides and sloped ends reiminiscent of the vintage wagon style used on the Oregon Trail, California Gold Rush and Oklahoma Land Rush. Popular with museums representing the Oregon Trail, these covered wagons are also referred to as emigrant's wagons or pioneer wagons.

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    Army Escort Wagon

    The Army Escort Wagon was usually pulled by 4-6 mules and had a load capacity of 3000 pounds. Perfected and standardized during the Spanish-American War, the Army Escort Wagon carried military troops, rations and baggage. This heavy wagon is characterized by the flare boards and extensive hand-forged hardware on the box as well as the California-style seat risers on the seat.

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    Buckboard

    The buckboard is a distinctively American wagon, originating in the eastern mountainous regions, then moved West with the pioneers. The buckboard has no metal springs, its suspension comes from the springy "buckboards" that make up the floor and body. Our rugged Ranch Hand Single-Seat Buckboard has a 30" x 84" body and is constructed of solid hickory with a wood dash. Authentic in design to original buckboards, it is built with low-maintenance roller bearing wheels and axles. The lazy-back oak seat has hand forged armrests and is attached with two elliptical springs for a more comfortable ride. The Cow Boss Two-Seat Buckboard has an additional seat and a longer heavier bed as well as heavier wheels and axles.

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    Rave Frame Hitch Wagon Or Show Wagon

    Hitch Wagons are one of the most carefully designed and practical, yet beautiful wagons ever built. The spring system, fifth-wheel assembly, and "cut under" front wheels facilitate tight turns and give this wagon a flexibility ideally suited to the driving conditions of the horse-drawn era. Our wagons are built to last, using traditional joinery on the frame and authentic construction details to replicate wagons of the past. We pay careful attention to the details, from the reproduction hardware to the hand-painted pinstriping and lettering. The Rave Frame Hitch Wagon typified the style of wagon widely used for the delivery of many types of goods in cities, but has become widely considered a "Beer Wagon".

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    Raised Panel Hitch Wagon Or Show Wagon

    At Hansen Wheel & Wagon we begin our wagon design with a study of the construction of the original wagons, built in the days when the wagons were used daily. We base the construction of our vehicles upon the premise that what worked well in that environment will prove to be the most durable wagon in today's world as well. Our show wagons are custom constructed, allowing for variations in individual tastes while following the original maker's blueprints to ensure authenticity in design and durability that will withstand the test of time.

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    Express Wagon

    The express wagon was originally used as a means to transport parcels to towns and cities not serviced by the railroads. Our Express Wagons are a slightly lighter weight version of our Delivery Wagon. Ideal for use with small sized teams.

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    Delivery Wagon

    The Delivery Wagon formed the largest group of commercial wagons, being built in many sizes and styles for all types of delivery work. These attractive, platform spring wagons were able to be pulled by one or two horses, making them adaptable to any type of light or medium work. Painted or stained finishes with custom striping and lettering makes your individual wagon unique.

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    add.’1

    In REM sleep be it a nightmare for Dr. Kilgore, Dr. Piel, Dr. Transition, Dr. Zacharias had in real word equated word open as it is the word Forum that equated word Hall and his holding of a Can of Cat Food, please get word him and understand that UPC.  precept, note AQHA.

    equinavia.com › Blog
    Jul 6, 2022 · Riding proper transitions on your horse is a significant step toward achieving better connection, balance, and suppleness: learn all about ...
    People also ask
    What is a horse transition?

    Transitions, Transitions: Simple, but not easy - Ritter Dressage

    www.artisticdressage.com › blog-content › transitions-transitions
    Jun 20, 2023 · Transitions are valuable therapeutic tools because they can help you improve the horse's balance, straightness, suppleness, attentiveness, and permeability.

    Volker Brommann: The Why, When and How of Transitions

    dressagetoday.com › Instruction › FEI Level
    Because transitions shift weight to the hindquarters, they make the horse more maneuverable in preparation for a movement. In Third Level, for example, we have ...

    Training for Transitions - AQHA

    www.aqha.com › a-piece-of-the-puzzle
    One of the most important aspects of good horsemanship is solid transitions · We need the horse to perform upward and downward transitions smoothly and easily, ...

    An Independent Mind, Knot Logic

    The Secret of the Universe is Choice: Know Decision; http://thesecretoftheuniversechoice.blogspot.com/ (https://beingsandrice.blogspot.com/)

    My photo
    Karen Placek
    Presents, a Life with a Plan. My name is Karen Anastasia Placek, I am the author of this Google Blog. This is the story of my journey, a quest to understanding more than myself. The title of my first blog delivered more than a million views!! The title is its work as "The Secret of the Universe is Choice!; know decision" will be the next global slogan. Placed on T-shirts, Jackets, Sweatshirts, it really doesn't matter, 'cause a picture with my slogan is worth more than a thousand words, it's worth??.......Know Conversation!!! 
    View my complete profile
    Showing posts sorted by relevance for query query the way of of spread out in a year. Sort by date Show all posts

    Sunday, April 5, 2026

    Title: Dr. Ziegler, how many Parents have a word Client of yours equating a Three, as they are also word Three are or stating word Coma?

    Coma equated word gravestone without the tomb writ,

    so write,

    so wright!!

    A unit circle is rolled across a surface; after a full revolution, the center of the circle has moved π units forwards.
    An illustration of the value of pi
    Part of a series of articles on the
    mathematical constant π
    3.1415926535897932384626433...
    Uses
    • Area of a circle
    • Circumference
    • Use in other formulae
    Properties
    • Irrationality
    • Transcendence
    Value
    • Less than 22/7
    • Approximations 
      • Milü
    • Madhava's correction term
    • Memorization
    People
    • Archimedes
    • Liu Hui
    • Zu Chongzhi
    • Aryabhata
    • Madhava
    • Jamshid al-Kashi
    • Ludolph van Ceulen
    • François Viète
    • Seki Takakazu
    • Takebe Kenkō
    • William Jones
    • John Machin
    • William Shanks
    • Srinivasa Ramanujan
    • John Wrench
    • Chudnovsky brothers
    • Yasumasa Kanada
    History
    • Chronology
    • A History of Pi
    In culture
    • Indiana pi bill
    • Pi Day
    Related topics
    • Squaring the circle
    • Basel problem
    • Six nines in π
    • Other topics related to π
    • Tau
    • v
    • t
    • e

    The number π (/paɪ/ ⓘ; spelled out as pi) is a mathematical constant, approximately equal to 3.14159, that is the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter. It appears in many formulae across mathematics and physics, and some of these formulae are commonly used for defining π, to avoid relying on the definition of the length of a curve.

    The number π is an irrational number, meaning that it cannot be expressed exactly as a ratio of two integers, although fractions such as ⁠22/7⁠ are commonly

     


    Cantore Arithmetic is able to state for the Parents of their word Child whom are currently in word Coma, this is a strange word Place as everything is word set in Florida!!  I, _ _ _ - _ _ - _ _ _ _ placed the word Coma or the Client Comatose on the Fibonacci Sequence;

    1.  Fibonacci Sequence in Nature

    2.  the way of Coma 

    3.  The Fibonacci Sequence and the Golden Ratio 

    For instance[Instance[INSTANCE:[::] fibonacci sequence in nature - YouTube www.youtube.com › watch fibonacci sequence in nature from www.youtube.com Nov 26, 2014 · Share your videos with friends, family, and the world. Duration: 6:13 in the line up on this Page equated words fibonacci square!!!.

    Fibonacci Sequence in Nature - YouTube

    www.youtube.com › watch
    fibonacci sequence in nature from www.youtube.com
    May 11, 2013 · This is a video compilation of clips from various sources with The Divine Book: The Absolute Creator.
    Duration: 2:29
    Posted: May 11, 2013

    The Fibonacci sequence can be revealed in the most unexpected places in nature, from pinecone spirals to sunflower seeds. - Facebook

    www.facebook.com › ... › TV & Movies › TV show › NOVA l PBS › Videos
    fibonacci sequence in nature from www.facebook.com
    Mar 1, 2026 · The Fibonacci sequence can be revealed in the most unexpected places in nature, from ...
    Duration: 2:25
    Posted: Mar 1, 2026

    The Fibonacci Sequence: Nature's Code - YouTube

    www.youtube.com › watch
    fibonacci sequence in nature from www.youtube.com
    Aug 17, 2012 · Hank introduces us to the most beautiful numbers in nature - the Fibonacci sequence. Like ...
    Duration: 3:20
    Posted: Aug 17, 2012

    The fibonacci sequence in nature - YouTube

    www.youtube.com › watch
    fibonacci sequence in nature from www.youtube.com
    Nov 26, 2014 · Share your videos with friends, family, and the world.
    Duration: 6:13
    Posted: Nov 26, 2014

    Words, So, the word square root is applicable as word see Quinn and I used Quincy, M.E.:::  

    "Quincy, M.E." TV Intro - YouTube

    www.youtube.com › watch
    Quincy, M.D. intro from www.youtube.com
    Jan 8, 2013 · "Quincy, M.E.," starring Jack Klugman, debuted in the fall of 1976 as part of "The NBC Mystery ...
    Duration: 1:12
    Posted: Jan 8, 2013

    Quincy - Theme Song - YouTube

    www.youtube.com › watch
    Quincy, M.D. intro from www.youtube.com
    Apr 3, 2014 · Share your videos with friends, family, and the world.
    Duration: 1:02
    Posted: Apr 3, 2014


    Spaulding Researchers Participate in First Global Study to Reveal Epidemiologic Data on Coma

    NEWS-ARTICLE
    September 7, 2022

    Coma is a serious medical condition caused by brain injury or illness that has no known cure. Until now, information about how common coma is has not been available. A new study, titled “Incidence and prevalence of coma in the UK and the USA” and published in Brain Communications, was conducted jointly by eighteen neuroscientists from the United States and Europe who are involved in the Curing Coma Campaign. The study has revealed the first epidemiologic data on coma in the United Kingdom and the US. The researchers utilized crowdsourcing methodology to determine how frequently coma occurs.

    "In contrast to neurological conditions for which epidemiological data are available, coma results from many different brain injuries or medical diseases. Coma is not readily identifiable with conventional methods that utilize electronic medical records, insurance billing codes or clinical surveyance data," says Daniel Kondziella, a neurologist from Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, in Copenhagen, Denmark.

    So, who knows how frequent coma is? “The family knows,” he adds.

    Joseph T. Giacino, PhD, Director of Rehabilitation Neuropsychology and the Disorders of Consciousness Program at Spaulding Rehabilitation and study co-author explains that, "Crowdsourcing methodology allows representative sampling of participants from the UK and the US populations based on official census data. Moreover, family members are acutely aware of the impact of coma on their loved ones and can state with high confidence when a relative has been in a coma within the preceding year or at the time of inquiry." In addition to Dr. Giacino, Spaulding’s Yelena G. Bodien, PhD, Research Scientist, co-authored the paper.

    The co-chairs of the Curing Coma Campaign, J. Claude Hemphill III, Professor of Neurology at the Zuckerberg San Francisco General Hospital in San Francisco, CA, and DaiWai Olson, Professor at the University of Texas Southwestern in Dallas, TX, recognize the importance of this study: ”The authors have shown that in the US, at any given time, approximately 31 in 100,000 people are in a coma, and each year, there are around 258 in 100,000 people who enter a coma because of acute brain injury."

    Dr. Giacino continues, “The frequency of coma is comparable to other major conditions that we often encounter in intensive care such as sepsis and traumatic brain injury, but until now we had no figures to demonstrate this.”

    Interestingly, the authors identified many more cases of coma in the US than in the UK. Dr. Bodien states, “I don’t think this difference reflects a perceptional bias of the participants because we included measures to correct for this in the survey. Although speculative, one contributing factor might be a difference in the medical systems between the two countries."

    "For example," Daniel Kondziella says, "the number of intensive care beds in the UK per capita is considerably lower than in the US, but we have to do more research to find out if this is part of the explanation. A combination of traditional epidemiological methods and crowdsourcing of family observations might provide even more accurate estimates for coma in the future. These figures are urgently needed because they broaden the public health perspective for patients in coma and other disorders of consciousness.”

     


    About Spaulding Rehabilitation

    A member of the Mass General Brigham Health System, Spaulding Rehabilitation includes Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital, with a main campus in Charlestown the 3rd ranked rehabilitation hospital in the country by U.S. News & World Report, along with Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital Cape Cod, Spaulding Hospital Cambridge, Spaulding Nursing and Therapy Center Brighton, and over 25 outpatient sites throughout Eastern Massachusetts. An acclaimed teaching hospital of Harvard Medical School and home to the Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Spaulding is recognized as a top residency program in the U.S. in the Doximity Residency Navigator. Spaulding also was recognized by the 2022 Disability Equality Index as a “Best Places to Work for Disability Inclusion.” For more information, visit www.spauldingrehab.org.

    Presents, a Life with a Plan. My name is Karen Anastasia Placek, I am the author of this Google Blog. This is the story of my journey, a quest to understanding more than myself. The title of my first blog delivered more than a million views!! The title is its work as "The Secret of the Universe is Choice!; know decision" will be the next global slogan. Placed on T-shirts, Jackets, Sweatshirts, it really doesn't matter, 'cause a picture with my slogan is worth more than a thousand words, it's worth??.......Know Conversation!!! 
    View my complete profile
    Showing posts sorted by relevance for query the way of coma. Sort by date Show all posts

    Friday, November 18, 2022

    The Moon Is Postion

     


    In subtle latitude of arithmetic (Cantore) the project aspect will attempt to work the following:  To map the stars with a natural growth of the Redwood.

    To do such the aspect would have to see the photograph to the idea.  This round would include a location of judgement on earth to drop the rings and add the known star systems: Milky Way.  The Redwood Tree is on foundation of Earth and at “age” the bearing would deliver the “Age in Aquarius”?  As the Age of Aquarius is to match the age of our Earth at this time it would give in the now a fair bearing.  

    This would be able to deliver the Sun as either a disc or a halo to engage the thought of the Pyramid without the glyph.  To think on this tactile environment and with the added dimensional ability to average the idea the truth of the outline of just the ceiling at Grand Central Station would have a real American keel.  To build the idea at the concept the watch with embellishment might deliver a larger star system.


    Milky Way

    From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

    The Milky Way[b] is the galaxy that includes our Solar System, with the name describing the galaxy's appearance from Earth: a hazy band of light seen in the night sky formed from stars that cannot be individually distinguished by the naked eye. The term Milky Way is a translation of the Latin via lactea, from the Greek γαλακτικός κύκλος (galaktikos kýklos), meaning "milky circle".[18][19][20] From Earth, the Milky Way appears as a band because its disk-shaped structure is viewed from within. Galileo Galilei first resolved the band of light into individual stars with his telescope in 1610. Until the early 1920s, most astronomers thought that the Milky Way contained all the stars in the Universe.[21] Following the 1920 Great Debate between the astronomers Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis,[22] observations by Edwin Hubble showed that the Milky Way is just one of many galaxies.

    The Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy with an estimated D25 isophotal diameter of 26.8 ± 1.1 kiloparsecs (87,400 ± 3,590 light-years),[8] but only about 1,000 light years thick at the spiral arms (more at the bulge). Recent simulations suggest that a dark matter area, also containing some visible stars, may extend up to a diameter of almost 2 million light-years (613 kpc).[23][24] The Milky Way has several satellite galaxies and is part of the Local Group of galaxies, which form part of the Virgo Supercluster, which is itself a component of the Laniakea Supercluster.[25][26]

    It is estimated to contain 100–400 billion stars[27][28] and at least that number of planets.[29][30] The Solar System is located at a radius of about 27,000 light-years (8.3 kpc) from the Galactic Center,[31] on the inner edge of the Orion Arm, one of the spiral-shaped concentrations of gas and dust. The stars in the innermost 10,000 light-years form a bulge and one or more bars that radiate from the bulge. The Galactic Center is an intense radio source known as Sagittarius A*, a supermassive black hole of 4.100 (± 0.034) million solar masses.[32][33] Stars and gases at a wide range of distances from the Galactic Center orbit at approximately 220 kilometers per second. The constant rotational speed appears to contradict the laws of Keplerian dynamics and suggests that much (about 90%)[34][35] of the mass of the Milky Way is invisible to telescopes, neither emitting nor absorbing electromagnetic radiation. This conjectural mass has been termed "dark matter".[36] The rotational period is about 212 million years at the radius of the Sun.[13]

    The Milky Way as a whole is moving at a velocity of approximately 600 km per second with respect to extragalactic frames of reference. The oldest stars in the Milky Way are nearly as old as the Universe itself and thus probably formed shortly after the Dark Ages of the Big Bang.[37]

    Contents

    • 1Etymology and mythology
    • 2Appearance
    • 3Astronomical history
    • 4Astrography
      • 4.1Sun's location and neighborhood
      • 4.2Galactic quadrants
    • 5Size and mass
      • 5.1Size
      • 5.2Mass
    • 6Contents
    • 7Structure
      • 7.1Galactic Center
        • 7.1.1Gamma rays and x-rays
      • 7.2Spiral arms
      • 7.3Halo
        • 7.3.1Gaseous halo
      • 7.4Galactic rotation
    • 8Formation
      • 8.1History
      • 8.2Age and cosmological history
    • 9Intergalactic neighbourhood
    • 10Velocity
    • 11See also
    • 12Notes
    • 13References
    • 14Further reading
    • 15External links

    Etymology and mythology[edit]

    The Origin of the Milky Way by Tintoretto (circa 1575–1580)
    Main articles: List of names for the Milky Way and Milky Way (mythology)

    In the Babylonian epic poem Enūma Eliš, the Milky Way is created from the severed tail of the primeval salt water dragoness Tiamat, set in the sky by Marduk, the Babylonian national god, after slaying her.[38][39] This story was once thought to have been based on an older Sumerian version in which Tiamat is instead slain by Enlilof Nippur,[40][41] but is now thought to be purely an invention of Babylonian propagandists with the intention to show Marduk as superior to the Sumerian deities.[41]

    In Greek mythology, Zeus places his son born by a mortal woman, the infant Heracles, on Hera's breast while she is asleep so the baby will drink her divine milk and thus become immortal. Hera wakes up while breastfeeding and then realizes she is nursing an unknown baby: she pushes the baby away, some of her milk spills, and it produces the band of light known as the Milky Way. In another Greek story, the abandoned Heracles is given by Athena to Hera for feeding, but Heracles' forcefulness causes Athena to rip him from her breast in pain.[42][43][44]

    Llys Dôn (literally "The Court of Dôn") is the traditional Welsh name for the constellation Cassiopeia. At least three of Dôn's children also have astronomical associations: Caer Gwydion ("The fortress of Gwydion") is the traditional Welsh name for the Milky Way,[45][46] and Caer Arianrhod ("The Fortress of Arianrhod") being the constellation of Corona Borealis.[47][48]

    In western culture, the name "Milky Way" is derived from its appearance as a dim un-resolved "milky" glowing band arching across the night sky. The term is a translation of the Classical Latin via lactea, in turn derived from the Hellenistic Greek γαλαξίας, short for γαλαξίας κύκλος (galaxías kýklos), meaning "milky circle". The Ancient Greek γαλαξίας (galaxias) – from root γαλακτ-, γάλα ("milk") + -ίας (forming adjectives) – is also the root of "galaxy", the name for our, and later all such, collections of stars.[18][49][50][51]

    The Milky Way, or "milk circle", was just one of 11 "circles" the Greeks identified in the sky, others being the zodiac, the meridian, the horizon, the equator, the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, the Arctic Circleand the Antarctic Circle, and two colure circles passing through both poles.[52]

    A view of the Milky Way toward the constellation Sagittarius (including the Galactic Center), as seen from a dark site with little light pollution (the Black Rock Desert, Nevada), the bright object on the lower right is Jupiter, just above Antares

    Appearance[edit]

    A time-lapse video capturing the Milky Way arching over ALMA

    The Milky Way is visible as a hazy band of white light, some 30° wide, arching the night sky.[53] Although all the individual naked-eye stars in the entire sky are part of the Milky Way Galaxy, the term "Milky Way" is limited to this band of light.[54][55] The light originates from the accumulation of unresolved stars and other material located in the direction of the galactic plane. Brighter regions around the band appear as soft visual patches known as star clouds. The most conspicuous of these is the Large Sagittarius Star Cloud, a portion of the central bulge of the galaxy.[56] Dark regions within the band, such as the Great Rift and the Coalsack, are areas where interstellar dust blocks light from distant stars. Peoples of the southern hemisphere, including the Inca and Australian aborigines, identified these regions as dark cloud constellations.[57] The area of sky that the Milky Way obscures is called the Zone of Avoidance.[58]

    The Milky Way has a relatively low surface brightness. Its visibility can be greatly reduced by background light, such as light pollution or moonlight. The sky needs to be darker than about 20.2 magnitude per square arcsecond in order for the Milky Way to be visible.[59] It should be visible if the limiting magnitude is approximately +5.1 or better and shows a great deal of detail at +6.1.[60] This makes the Milky Way difficult to see from brightly lit urban or suburban areas, but very prominent when viewed from rural areas when the Moon is below the horizon.[c] Maps of artificial night sky brightness show that more than one-third of Earth's population cannot see the Milky Way from their homes due to light pollution.[61]

    As viewed from Earth, the visible region of the Milky Way's galactic plane occupies an area of the sky that includes 30 constellations.[d] The Galactic Center lies in the direction of Sagittarius, where the Milky Way is brightest. From Sagittarius, the hazy band of white light appears to pass around to the galactic anticenter in Auriga. The band then continues the rest of the way around the sky, back to Sagittarius, dividing the sky into two roughly equal hemispheres.[citation needed]

    The galactic plane is inclined by about 60° to the ecliptic (the plane of Earth's orbit). Relative to the celestial equator, it passes as far north as the constellation of Cassiopeia and as far south as the constellation of Crux, indicating the high inclination of Earth's equatorial plane and the plane of the ecliptic, relative to the galactic plane. The north galactic pole is situated at right ascension 12h 49m, declination +27.4° (B1950) near β Comae Berenices, and the south galactic pole is near α Sculptoris. Because of this high inclination, depending on the time of night and year, the Milky Way arch may appear relatively low or relatively high in the sky. For observers from latitudes approximately 65° north to 65° south, the Milky Way passes directly overhead twice a day.[citation needed]

    • The Milky Way arching at a high inclination across the night sky, (this composited panorama was taken at Paranal Observatory in northern Chile); the Magellanic Clouds can be seen on the left; the bright object near top center is Jupiter in the constellation Sagittarius, and the orange glow at the horizon on the right is Antofagasta city with a jet trail above it; galactic north is downward.

      The Milky Way arching at a high inclination across the night sky, (this composited panorama was taken at Paranal Observatory in northern Chile); the Magellanic Clouds can be seen on the left; the bright object near top center is Jupiter in the constellation Sagittarius, and the orange glow at the horizon on the right is Antofagasta city with a jet trail above it; galactic north is downward.

    •  
    • The Milky Way viewed at different wavelengths

      The Milky Way viewed at different wavelengths

    Astronomical history[edit]

    See also: Galaxy § Observation history
    The shape of the Milky Way as deduced from star counts by William Herschel in 1785; the Solar System was assumed near center

    In Meteorologica, Aristotle (384–322 BC) states that the Greek philosophers Anaxagoras (c. 500–428 BC) and Democritus (460–370 BC) proposed that the Milky Way is the glow of stars not directly visible due to Earth's shadow, while other stars receive their light from the Sun (but have their glow obscured by solar rays).[62] Aristotle himself believed that the Milky Way was part of the Earth's upper atmosphere (along with the stars), and that it was a byproduct of stars burning that did not dissipate because of its outermost location in the atmosphere (composing its great circle). He also said that the Milky appearance of the Milky Way galaxy was due to the refraction of the earth's atmosphere.[63][64][65] The Neoplatonist philosopher Olympiodorus the Younger (c. 495–570 AD) criticized this view, arguing that if the Milky Way were sublunary, it should appear different at different times and places on Earth, and that it should have parallax, which it does not. In his view, the Milky Way is celestial. This idea would be influential later in the Muslim world.[66]

    The Persian astronomer Al-Biruni (973–1048) proposed that the Milky Way is "a collection of countless fragments of the nature of nebulous stars".[67] The Andalusianastronomer Avempace (d 1138) proposed the Milky Way to be made up of many stars but appears to be a continuous image in the Earth's atmosphere, citing his observation of a conjunction of Jupiter and Mars in 1106 or 1107 as evidence.[64] The Persian astronomer Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–1274) in his Tadhkira wrote: "The Milky Way, i.e. the Galaxy, is made up of a very large number of small, tightly clustered stars, which, on account of their concentration and smallness, seem to be cloudy patches. Because of this, it was likened to milk in color."[68] Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya (1292–1350) proposed that the Milky Way is "a myriad of tiny stars packed together in the sphere of the fixed stars".[69]

    Proof of the Milky Way consisting of many stars came in 1610 when Galileo Galilei used a telescope to study the Milky Way and discovered that it is composed of a huge number of faint stars. Galileo also concluded that the appearance of the Milky Way was due to refraction of the Earth's atmosphere .[70][71][63] In a treatise in 1755, Immanuel Kant, drawing on earlier work by Thomas Wright,[72] speculated (correctly) that the Milky Way might be a rotating body of a huge number of stars, held together by gravitational forces akin to the Solar System but on much larger scales.[73] The resulting disk of stars would be seen as a band on the sky from our perspective inside the disk. Wright and Kant also conjectured that some of the nebulae visible in the night sky might be separate "galaxies" themselves, similar to our own. Kant referred to both the Milky Way and the "extragalactic nebulae" as "island universes", a term still current up to the 1930s.[74][75][76]

    The first attempt to describe the shape of the Milky Way and the position of the Sun within it was carried out by William Herschel in 1785 by carefully counting the number of stars in different regions of the visible sky. He produced a diagram of the shape of the Milky Way with the Solar System close to the center.[77]

    In 1845, Lord Rosse constructed a new telescope and was able to distinguish between elliptical and spiral-shaped nebulae. He also managed to make out individual point sources in some of these nebulae, lending credence to Kant's earlier conjecture.[78][79]

    Photograph of the "Great Andromeda Nebula" from 1899, later identified as the Andromeda Galaxy

    In 1904, studying the proper motions of stars, Jacobus Kapteyn reported that these were not random, as it was believed in that time; stars could be divided into two streams, moving in nearly opposite directions.[80] It was later realized that Kapteyn's data had been the first evidence of the rotation of our galaxy,[81] which ultimately led to the finding of galactic rotation by Bertil Lindblad and Jan Oort.[citation needed]

    In 1917, Heber Curtis had observed the nova S Andromedae within the Great Andromeda Nebula (Messier object 31). Searching the photographic record, he found 11 more novae. Curtis noticed that these novae were, on average, 10 magnitudes fainter than those that occurred within the Milky Way. As a result, he was able to come up with a distance estimate of 150,000 parsecs. He became a proponent of the "island universes" hypothesis, which held that the spiral nebulae were independent galaxies.[82][83] In 1920 the Great Debate took place between Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis, concerning the nature of the Milky Way, spiral nebulae, and the dimensions of the Universe. To support his claim that the Great Andromeda Nebula is an external galaxy, Curtis noted the appearance of dark lanes resembling the dust clouds in the Milky Way, as well as the significant Doppler shift.[84]

    The controversy was conclusively settled by Edwin Hubble in the early 1920s using the Mount Wilson observatory 2.5 m (100 in) Hooker telescope. With the light-gathering power of this new telescope, he was able to produce astronomical photographs that resolved the outer parts of some spiral nebulae as collections of individual stars. He was also able to identify some Cepheid variables that he could use as a benchmark to estimate the distance to the nebulae. He found that the Andromeda Nebula is 275,000 parsecs from the Sun, far too distant to be part of the Milky Way.[85][86]

    Astrography[edit]

    Map of the Milky Way Galaxy with the constellations that cross the galactic plane in each direction and the known prominent components annotated including main arms, spurs, bar, nucleus/bulge, notable nebulae and globular clusters.
    An all-sky view of stars in the Milky Way and neighbouring galaxies, based on the first year of observations from Gaia satellite, from July 2014 to September 2015. The map shows the density of stars in each portion of the sky. Brighter regions indicate denser concentrations of stars. Darker regions across the Galactic Plane correspond to dense clouds of interstellar gas and dust that absorb starlight.

    The ESA spacecraft Gaia provides distance estimates by determining the parallax of a billion stars and is mapping the Milky Way with four planned releases of maps in 2016, 2018, 2021 and 2024.[87][88] Data from Gala has been described as "transformational". It has been estimated that Gaia has expanded the number of observations of stars from about 2 million stars as of the 1990s to 2 billion. It has expanded the measurable volume of space by a factor of 100 in radius and a factor of 1,000 in precision.[89] A study in 2020 concluded that Gaia detected a wobbling motion of the galaxy, which might be caused by "torques from a misalignment of the disc's rotation axis with respect to the principal axis of a non-spherical halo, or from accreted matter in the halo acquired during late infall, or from nearby, interacting satellite galaxies and their consequent tides".[90]

    Sun's location and neighborhood[edit]

    See also: Location of Earth
    Position of the Solar System within the Milky Way
    Diagram of the Milky Way with the position of the Solar System marked by a yellow arrow and a red dot in the Orion Arm. The dot roughly covers the larger surroundings of the Solar System, the space between the Radcliffe waveand Split linear structures (formerly the Gould Belt).[91]
    Artistic close-up of the Orion Arm with the main features of the Radcliffe Wave and Split linear structures, and with the Solar System surrounded by the closest large scale celestial features at the surface of the Local Bubble at a distance of 400–500 light years.

    The Sun is near the inner rim of the Orion Arm, within the Local Fluff of the Local Bubble, between the Radcliffe waveand Split linear structures (formerly Gould Belt).[91] Based upon studies of stellar orbits around Sgr A* by Gillessen et al.(2016), the Sun lies at an estimated distance of 27.14 ± 0.46 kly (8.32 ± 0.14 kpc)[31] from the Galactic Center. Boehle et al. (2016) found a smaller value of 25.64 ± 0.46 kly (7.86 ± 0.14 kpc), also using a star orbit analysis.[92] The Sun is currently 5–30 parsecs (16–98 ly) above, or north of, the central plane of the Galactic disk.[93] The distance between the local arm and the next arm out, the Perseus Arm, is about 2,000 parsecs (6,500 ly).[94] The Sun, and thus the Solar System, is located in the Milky Way's galactic habitable zone.[95][96]

    There are about 208 stars brighter than absolute magnitude 8.5 within a sphere with a radius of 15 parsecs (49 ly) from the Sun, giving a density of one star per 69 cubic parsecs, or one star per 2,360 cubic light-years (from List of nearest bright stars). On the other hand, there are 64 known stars (of any magnitude, not counting 4 brown dwarfs) within 5 parsecs (16 ly) of the Sun, giving a density of about one star per 8.2 cubic parsecs, or one per 284 cubic light-years (from List of nearest stars). This illustrates the fact that there are far more faint stars than bright stars: in the entire sky, there are about 500 stars brighter than apparent magnitude 4 but 15.5 million stars brighter than apparent magnitude 14.[97]

    The apex of the Sun's way, or the solar apex, is the direction that the Sun travels through space in the Milky Way. The general direction of the Sun's Galactic motion is towards the star Vega near the constellation of Hercules, at an angle of roughly 60 sky degrees to the direction of the Galactic Center. The Sun's orbit about the Milky Way is expected to be roughly elliptical with the addition of perturbations due to the Galactic spiral arms and non-uniform mass distributions. In addition, the Sun passes through the Galactic plane approximately 2.7 times per orbit.[98] This is very similar to how a simple harmonic oscillator works with no drag force (damping) term. These oscillations were until recently thought to coincide with mass lifeform extinction periods on Earth.[99] A reanalysis of the effects of the Sun's transit through the spiral structure based on CO data has failed to find a correlation.[100]

    It takes the Solar System about 240 million years to complete one orbit of the Milky Way (a galactic year),[101] so the Sun is thought to have completed 18–20 orbits during its lifetime and 1/1250 of a revolution since the origin of humans. The orbital speed of the Solar System about the center of the Milky Way is approximately 220 km/s (490,000 mph) or 0.073% of the speed of light. The Sun moves through the heliosphere at 84,000 km/h (52,000 mph). At this speed, it takes around 1,400 years for the Solar System to travel a distance of 1 light-year, or 8 days to travel 1 AU (astronomical unit).[102] The Solar System is headed in the direction of the zodiacal constellation Scorpius, which follows the ecliptic.[103]

    Galactic quadrants[edit]

    Main article: Galactic quadrant
    Diagram of the Sun's location in the Milky Way, the angles represent longitudes in the galactic coordinate system.

    A galactic quadrant, or quadrant of the Milky Way, refers to one of four circular sectors in the division of the Milky Way. In astronomical practice, the delineation of the galactic quadrants is based upon the galactic coordinate system, which places the Sun as the origin of the mapping system.[104]

    Quadrants are described using ordinals – for example, "1st galactic quadrant",[105] "second galactic quadrant",[106] or "third quadrant of the Milky Way".[107] Viewing from the north galactic pole with 0° (zero degrees) as the ray that runs starting from the Sun and through the Galactic Center, the quadrants are:

    Galactic
    quadrant
     
    Galactic
    longitude
    (ℓ)
      
    Reference
     
    1st0° ≤ ℓ ≤ 90°  [108]
    2nd  90° ≤ ℓ ≤ 180°[106]
    3rd180° ≤ ℓ ≤ 270°[107]
    4th
     
    270° ≤ ℓ ≤ 360°
    (360° ≅ 0°)
    [105]
     

    with the galactic longitude (ℓ) increasing in the counter-clockwise direction (positive rotation) as viewed from north of the Galactic Center (a view-point several hundred thousand light-years distant from Earth in the direction of the constellation Coma Berenices); if viewed from south of the Galactic Center (a view-point similarly distant in the constellation Sculptor), ℓ would increase in the clockwise direction (negative rotation).

    Size and mass[edit]

    The structure of the Milky Way is thought to be similar to this galaxy (UGC 12158 imaged by Hubble)

    Size[edit]

    A size comparison of the six largest galaxies of the Local Group, together with the Milky Way

    The Milky Way is one of the two largest galaxies in the Local Group (the other being the Andromeda Galaxy), although the size for its galactic disc and how much it defines the isophotal diameter is not well understood.[109] It is estimated that the significant bulk of stars in the galaxy lies within the 26 kiloparsecs (80,000 light-years) diameter, and that the number of stars beyond the outermost disc dramatically reduces to a very low number, with respect to an extrapolation of the exponential disk with the scale length of the inner disc.[110][109]

    There are several methods being used in astronomy in defining the size of a galaxy, and each of them can yield different results with respect to one another. The most commonly employed method is the D25 standard – the isophote where the photometric brightness of a galaxy in the B-band (445 nm wavelength of light, in the blue part of the visible spectrum) reaches 25 mag/arcsec2.[111] An estimate from 1997 by Goodwin and others compared the distribution of Cepheid variable stars in 17 other spiral galaxies to the ones in the Milky Way, and modelling the relationship to their surface brightnesses. This gave an isophotal diameter for the Milky Way at 26.8 ± 1.1 kiloparsecs (87,400 ± 3,590 light-years), by assuming that the galactic disc is well represented by an exponential disc and adopting a central surface brightness of the galaxy (µ0) of 22.1±0.3 B-mag/arcsec−2 and a disk scale length (h) of 5.0 ± 0.5 kpc (16,000 ± 1,600 ly).[112][8][113] This is significantly smaller than the Andromeda Galaxy's isophotal diameter, and slightly below the mean isophotal sizes of the galaxies being at 28.3 kpc (92,000 ly).[8] The paper concludes that the Milky Way and Andromeda Galaxy were not overly large spiral galaxies and as well as one of the largest known (if the former not being the largest) as previously widely believed, but rather average ordinary spiral galaxies.[114] To compare the relative physical scale of the Milky Way, if the Solar System out to Neptune were the size of a US quarter (24.3 mm (0.955 in)), the Milky Way would be approximately at least the greatest north–south line of the contiguous United States.[115] An even older study from 1978 gave a lower diameter for Milky Way about 23 kpc (75,000 ly).[8]

    A 2015 paper discovered that there is a ring-like filament of stars called Triangulum–Andromeda Ring (TriAnd Ring) rippling above and below the relatively flat galactic plane, which alongside Monoceros Ring were both suggested to be primarily the result of disk oscillations and wrapping around the Milky Way, at a diameter of at least 50 kpc (160,000 ly),[116] which may be part of the Milky Way's outer disk itself, hence making the stellar disk larger by increasing to this size.[117] However, a more recent 2018 paper later somewhat ruled out this hypothesis, and supported a conclusion that the Monoceros Ring, A13 and TriAnd Ring were stellar overdensities rather kicked out from the main stellar disk, with the velocity dispersion of the RR Lyrae stars found to be higher and consistent with halo membership.[118] Another 2018 study revealed the very probable presence of disk stars at 26–31.5 kpc (84,800–103,000 ly) from the Galactic Center or perhaps even farther, significantly beyond approximately 13–20 kpc (40,000–70,000 ly), in which it was once believed to be the abrupt drop-off of the stellar density of the disk, meaning that few or no stars were expected to be above this limit, save for stars that belong to the old population of the galactic halo.[109][119][120]

    A 2020 study predicted the edge of the Milky Way's dark matter halo being around 292 ± 61 kpc (952,000 ± 199,000 ly), which translates to a diameter of 584 ± 122 kpc (1.905 ± 0.3979 Mly).[23][24] The Milky Way's stellar disk is also estimated to be approximately up to 1.35 kpc (4,000 ly) thick.[121][122]

    A schematic profile of the Milky Way.
    Abbreviations: GNP/GSP: Galactic North and South Poles

    Mass[edit]

    The Milky Way is approximately 890 billion to 1.54 trillion times the mass of the Sun in total (8.9×1011 to 1.54×1012 solar masses),[34][35][123] although stars and planets make up only a small part of this. Estimates of the mass of the Milky Way vary, depending upon the method and data used. The low end of the estimate range is 5.8×1011 solar masses (M☉), somewhat less than that of the Andromeda Galaxy.[124][125][126] Measurements using the Very Long Baseline Array in 2009 found velocities as large as 254 km/s (570,000 mph) for stars at the outer edge of the Milky Way.[127] Because the orbital velocity depends on the total mass inside the orbital radius, this suggests that the Milky Way is more massive, roughly equaling the mass of Andromeda Galaxy at 7×1011 M☉ within 160,000 ly (49 kpc) of its center.[128] In 2010, a measurement of the radial velocity of halo stars found that the mass enclosed within 80 kiloparsecs is 7×1011 M☉.[129] According to a study published in 2014, the mass of the entire Milky Way is estimated to be 8.5×1011 M☉,[130] but this is only half the mass of the Andromeda Galaxy.[130] A recent 2019 mass estimate for the Milky Way is 1.29×1012 M☉.[131]

    Much of the mass of the Milky Way seems to be dark matter, an unknown and invisible form of matter that interacts gravitationally with ordinary matter. A dark matter halo is conjectured to spread out relatively uniformly to a distance beyond one hundred kiloparsecs (kpc) from the Galactic Center. Mathematical models of the Milky Way suggest that the mass of dark matter is 1–1.5×1012 M☉.[132][133][134] 2013 and 2014 studies indicate a range in mass, as large as 4.5×1012 M☉[135] and as small as 8×1011 M☉.[136] By comparison, the total mass of all the stars in the Milky Way is estimated to be between 4.6×1010 M☉[137]and 6.43×1010 M☉.[132] In addition to the stars, there is also interstellar gas, comprising 90% hydrogen and 10% helium by mass,[138] with two thirds of the hydrogen found in the atomic form and the remaining one-third as molecular hydrogen.[139] The mass of the Milky Way's interstellar gas is equal to between 10%[139] and 15%[138] of the total mass of its stars. Interstellar dust accounts for an additional 1% of the total mass of the gas.[138]

    In March 2019, astronomers reported that the virial mass of the Milky Way galaxy is 1.54 trillion solar masses within a radius of about 39.5 kpc (130,000 ly), over twice as much as was determined in earlier studies, and suggesting that about 90% of the mass of the galaxy is dark matter.[34][35]

    Contents[edit]

    360-degree panorama view of the Milky Way (an assembled mosaic of photographs) by ESO, the galactic centre is in the middle of the view, with galactic north up
    360-degree rendering of the Milky Way using Gaia EDR3 data showing interstellar gas, dust backlit by stars (main patches labeled in black; white labels are main bright patches of stars). Left hemisphere is facing the galactic center, right hemisphere is facing the galactic anticenter.

    The Milky Way contains between 100 and 400 billion stars[9][10] and at least that many planets.[140] An exact figure would depend on counting the number of very-low-mass stars, which are difficult to detect, especially at distances of more than 300 ly (90 pc) from the Sun. As a comparison, the neighboring Andromeda Galaxy contains an estimated one trillion (1012) stars.[141] The Milky Way may contain ten billion white dwarfs, a billion neutron stars, and a hundred million stellar black holes.[e][142][143] Filling the space between the stars is a disk of gas and dust called the interstellar medium. This disk has at least a comparable extent in radius to the stars,[144] whereas the thickness of the gas layer ranges from hundreds of light-years for the colder gas to thousands of light-years for warmer gas.[145][146]

    The disk of stars in the Milky Way does not have a sharp edge beyond which there are no stars. Rather, the concentration of stars decreases with distance from the center of the Milky Way. For reasons that are not understood, beyond a radius of roughly 40,000 light years (13 kpc) from the center, the number of stars per cubic parsec drops much faster with radius.[110] Surrounding the galactic disk is a spherical galactic halo of stars and globular clusters that extends farther outward, but is limited in size by the orbits of two Milky Way satellites, the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, whose closest approach to the Galactic Center is about 180,000 ly (55 kpc).[147] At this distance or beyond, the orbits of most halo objects would be disrupted by the Magellanic Clouds. Hence, such objects would probably be ejected from the vicinity of the Milky Way. The integrated absolute visual magnitude of the Milky Way is estimated to be around −20.9.[148][149][f]

    Both gravitational microlensing and planetary transit observations indicate that there may be at least as many planets bound to stars as there are stars in the Milky Way,[29][150] and microlensing measurements indicate that there are more rogue planets not bound to host stars than there are stars.[151][152] The Milky Way contains at least one planet per star, resulting in 100–400 billion planets, according to a January 2013 study of the five-planet star system Kepler-32 by the Kepler space observatory.[30] A different January 2013 analysis of Kepler data estimated that at least 17 billion Earth-sized exoplanets reside in the Milky Way.[153] On November 4, 2013, astronomers reported, based on Kepler space mission data, that there could be as many as 40 billion Earth-sized planets orbiting in the habitable zones of Sun-like stars and red dwarfs within the Milky Way.[154][155][156] 11 billion of these estimated planets may be orbiting Sun-like stars.[157] The nearest exoplanet may be 4.2 light-years away, orbiting the red dwarf Proxima Centauri, according to a 2016 study.[158] Such Earth-sized planets may be more numerous than gas giants,[29] though harder to detect at great distances given their small size. Besides exoplanets, "exocomets", comets beyond the Solar System, have also been detected and may be common in the Milky Way.[159] More recently, in November 2020, over 300 million habitable exoplanets are estimated to exist in the Milky Way Galaxy.[160]

    Structure[edit]

    Overview of different elements of the overall structure of the Milky Way.
    A dark spot surrounded by doughnut shaped orange-yellow ring
    Supermassive black holeSagittarius A* imaged by the Event Horizon Telescope in radio waves. The central dark spot is the black hole's shadow, which is larger than the event horizon.
    Bright X-ray flares from Sagittarius A* (inset) in the center of the Milky Way, as detected by the Chandra X-ray Observatory.[161]
    0:27
    Artist's impression of how the Milky Way would look from different vantage points – from edge-on lines-of-sight, the peanut-shell-shaped structure, not to be confused with the galaxy's central bulge, is evident; viewed from above, the central narrow bar that is responsible for this structure appears clearly, as would many spiral arms and their associated dust clouds

    The Milky Way consists of a bar-shaped core region surrounded by a warped disk of gas, dust and stars.[162][163] The mass distribution within the Milky Way closely resembles the type Sbc in the Hubble classification, which represents spiral galaxies with relatively loosely wound arms.[5] Astronomers first began to conjecture that the Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy, rather than an ordinary spiral galaxy, in the 1960s.[164][165][166] These conjectures were confirmed by the Spitzer Space Telescope observations in 2005 that showed the Milky Way's central bar to be larger than previously thought.[167]

    Galactic Center[edit]

    Main article: Galactic Center

    The Sun is 25,000–28,000 ly (7.7–8.6 kpc) from the Galactic Center. This value is estimated using geometric-based methods or by measuring selected astronomical objects that serve as standard candles, with different techniques yielding various values within this approximate range.[168][92][31][169][170][171]In the inner few kiloparsecs (around 10,000 light-years radius) is a dense concentration of mostly old stars in a roughly spheroidal shape called the bulge.[172] It has been proposed that the Milky Way lacks a bulge due to a collision and merger between previous galaxies, and that instead it only has a pseudobulge formed by its central bar.[173] However, confusion in the literature between the (peanut shell)-shaped structure created by instabilities in the bar, versus a possible bulge with an expected half-light radius of 0.5 kpc, abounds.[174]

    The Galactic Center is marked by an intense radio source named Sagittarius A* (pronounced Sagittarius A-star). The motion of material around the center indicates that Sagittarius A* harbors a massive, compact object.[175] This concentration of mass is best explained as a supermassive black hole[g][168][176](SMBH) with an estimated mass of 4.1–4.5 million times the mass of the Sun.[176] The rate of accretion of the SMBH is consistent with an inactive galactic nucleus, being estimated at 1×10−5 M☉ per year.[177] Observations indicate that there are SMBHs located near the center of most normal galaxies.[178][179]

    The nature of the Milky Way's bar is actively debated, with estimates for its half-length and orientation spanning from 1 to 5 kpc (3,000–16,000 ly) and 10–50 degrees relative to the line of sight from Earth to the Galactic Center.[170][171][180] Certain authors advocate that the Milky Way features two distinct bars, one nestled within the other.[181] However, RR Lyrae-type stars do not trace a prominent Galactic bar.[171][182][183] The bar may be surrounded by a ring called the "5 kpc ring" that contains a large fraction of the molecular hydrogen present in the Milky Way, as well as most of the Milky Way's star formation activity. Viewed from the Andromeda Galaxy, it would be the brightest feature of the Milky Way.[184] X-ray emission from the core is aligned with the massive stars surrounding the central bar[177] and the Galactic ridge.[185]

    Gamma rays and x-rays[edit]

    Since 1970, various gamma-ray detection missions have discovered 511-keV gamma rays coming from the general direction of the Galactic Center. These gamma rays are produced by positrons (antielectrons) annihilating with electrons. In 2008 it was found that the distribution of the sources of the gamma rays resembles the distribution of low-mass X-ray binaries, seeming to indicate that these X-ray binaries are sending positrons (and electrons) into interstellar space where they slow down and annihilate.[186][187][188] The observations were both made by NASA and ESA's satellites. In 1970 gamma ray detectors found that the emitting region was about 10,000 light-years across with a luminosity of about 10,000 suns.[187]

    Illustration of the two gigantic X-ray/gamma-raybubbles (blue-violet) of the Milky Way (center)

    In 2010, two gigantic spherical bubbles of high energy gamma-emission were detected to the north and the south of the Milky Way core, using data from the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope. The diameter of each of the bubbles is about 25,000 light-years (7.7 kpc) (or about 1/4 of the galaxy's estimated diameter); they stretch up to Grus and to Virgo on the night-sky of the southern hemisphere.[189][190] Subsequently, observations with the Parkes Telescope at radio frequencies identified polarized emission that is associated with the Fermi bubbles. These observations are best interpreted as a magnetized outflow driven by star formation in the central 640 ly (200 pc) of the Milky Way.[191]

    Later, on January 5, 2015, NASA reported observing an X-ray flare 400 times brighter than usual, a record-breaker, from Sagittarius A*. The unusual event may have been caused by the breaking apart of an asteroid falling into the black hole or by the entanglement of magnetic field lines within gas flowing into Sagittarius A*.[161]

    Spiral arms[edit]

    Further information: Spiral galaxy

    Outside the gravitational influence of the Galactic bar, the structure of the interstellar medium and stars in the disk of the Milky Way is organized into four spiral arms.[192] Spiral arms typically contain a higher density of interstellar gas and dust than the Galactic average as well as a greater concentration of star formation, as traced by H II regions[193][194] and molecular clouds.[195]

    The Milky Way's spiral structure is uncertain, and there is currently no consensus on the nature of the Milky Way's arms.[196] Perfect logarithmic spiral patterns only crudely describe features near the Sun,[194][197] because galaxies commonly have arms that branch, merge, twist unexpectedly, and feature a degree of irregularity.[171][197][198] The possible scenario of the Sun within a spur / Local arm[194] emphasizes that point and indicates that such features are probably not unique, and exist elsewhere in the Milky Way.[197] Estimates of the pitch angle of the arms range from about 7° to 25°.[144][199] There are thought to be four spiral arms that all start near the Milky Way Galaxy's center.[200] These are named as follows, with the positions of the arms shown in the image below:

    Observed (normal lines) and extrapolated (dotted lines) structure of the spiral arms of the Milky Way, viewed from north of the galaxy – the galaxy rotates clockwise in this view. The gray lines radiating from the Sun's position (upper center) list the three-letter abbreviations of the corresponding constellations
    ColorArm(s)
    turquoiseNear 3 kpc Arm and Perseus Arm
    blueNorma and Outer arm (Along with extension discovered in 2004[201])
    greenScutum–Centaurus Arm
    redCarina–Sagittarius Arm
    There are at least two smaller arms or spurs, including:
    orangeOrion–Cygnus Arm (which contains the Sun and Solar System)
    Spitzer reveals what cannot be seen in visible light: cooler stars (blue), heated dust (reddish hue), and Sgr A* as bright white spot in the middle.
    Artist's conception of the spiral structure of the Milky Way with two major stellar arms and a bar.[196]

    Two spiral arms, the Scutum–Centaurus arm and the Carina–Sagittarius arm, have tangent points inside the Sun's orbit about the center of the Milky Way. If these arms contain an overdensity of stars compared to the average density of stars in the Galactic disk, it would be detectable by counting the stars near the tangent point. Two surveys of near-infrared light, which is sensitive primarily to red giants and not affected by dust extinction, detected the predicted overabundance in the Scutum–Centaurus arm but not in the Carina–Sagittarius arm: the Scutum–Centaurus Arm contains approximately 30% more red giants than would be expected in the absence of a spiral arm.[199][202] This observation suggests that the Milky Way possesses only two major stellar arms: the Perseus arm and the Scutum–Centaurus arm. The rest of the arms contain excess gas but not excess old stars.[196] In December 2013, astronomers found that the distribution of young stars and star-forming regions matches the four-arm spiral description of the Milky Way.[203][204][205] Thus, the Milky Way appears to have two spiral arms as traced by old stars and four spiral arms as traced by gas and young stars. The explanation for this apparent discrepancy is unclear.[205]

    Clusters detected by WISE used to trace the Milky Way's spiral arms.

    The Near 3 kpc Arm (also called the Expanding 3 kpc Arm or simply the 3 kpc Arm) was discovered in the 1950s by astronomer van Woerden and collaborators through 21 centimeter radio measurements of HI (atomic hydrogen).[206][207] It was found to be expanding away from the central bulge at more than 50 km/s. It is located in the fourth galactic quadrant at a distance of about 5.2 kpc from the Sun and 3.3 kpc from the Galactic Center. The Far 3 kpc Arm was discovered in 2008 by astronomer Tom Dame (Center for Astrophysics | Harvard & Smithsonian). It is located in the first galactic quadrant at a distance of 3 kpc (about 10,000 ly) from the Galactic Center.[207][208]

    A simulation published in 2011 suggested that the Milky Way may have obtained its spiral arm structure as a result of repeated collisions with the Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy.[209]

    It has been suggested that the Milky Way contains two different spiral patterns: an inner one, formed by the Sagittarius arm, that rotates fast and an outer one, formed by the Carina and Perseus arms, whose rotation velocity is slower and whose arms are tightly wound. In this scenario, suggested by numerical simulations of the dynamics of the different spiral arms, the outer pattern would form an outer pseudoring,[210] and the two patterns would be connected by the Cygnus arm.[211]

    The long filamentary molecular cloud dubbed "Nessie" probably forms a dense "spine" of the Scutum–Centarus Arm

    Outside of the major spiral arms is the Monoceros Ring (or Outer Ring), a ring of gas and stars torn from other galaxies billions of years ago. However, several members of the scientific community recently restated their position affirming the Monoceros structure is nothing more than an over-density produced by the flared and warped thick disk of the Milky Way.[212] The structure of the Milky Way's disk is warped along an "S" curve.[213]

    Halo[edit]

    The Galactic disk is surrounded by a spheroidal halo of old stars and globular clusters, of which 90% lie within 100,000 light-years (30 kpc) of the Galactic Center.[214] However, a few globular clusters have been found farther, such as PAL 4 and AM 1 at more than 200,000 light-years from the Galactic Center. About 40% of the Milky Way's clusters are on retrograde orbits, which means they move in the opposite direction from the Milky Way rotation.[215] The globular clusters can follow rosette orbits about the Milky Way, in contrast to the elliptical orbit of a planet around a star.[216]

    Although the disk contains dust that obscures the view in some wavelengths, the halo component does not. Active star formation takes place in the disk (especially in the spiral arms, which represent areas of high density), but does not take place in the halo, as there is little cool gas to collapse into stars.[101] Open clusters are also located primarily in the disk.[217]

    Discoveries in the early 21st century have added dimension to the knowledge of the Milky Way's structure. With the discovery that the disk of the Andromeda Galaxy (M31) extends much farther than previously thought,[218] the possibility of the disk of the Milky Way extending farther is apparent, and this is supported by evidence from the discovery of the Outer Arm extension of the Cygnus Arm[201][219] and of a similar extension of the Scutum–Centaurus Arm.[220] With the discovery of the Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy came the discovery of a ribbon of galactic debris as the polar orbit of the dwarf and its interaction with the Milky Way tears it apart. Similarly, with the discovery of the Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy, it was found that a ring of galactic debris from its interaction with the Milky Way encircles the Galactic disk.[citation needed]

    The Sloan Digital Sky Survey of the northern sky shows a huge and diffuse structure (spread out across an area around 5,000 times the size of a full moon) within the Milky Way that does not seem to fit within current models. The collection of stars rises close to perpendicular to the plane of the spiral arms of the Milky Way. The proposed likely interpretation is that a dwarf galaxy is merging with the Milky Way. This galaxy is tentatively named the Virgo Stellar Stream and is found in the direction of Virgo about 30,000 light-years (9 kpc) away.[221]

    Gaseous halo[edit]

    In addition to the stellar halo, the Chandra X-ray Observatory, XMM-Newton, and Suzaku have provided evidence that there is a gaseous halo with a large amount of hot gas. The halo extends for hundreds of thousand of light-years, much farther than the stellar halo and close to the distance of the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds. The mass of this hot halo is nearly equivalent to the mass of the Milky Way itself.[222][223][224] The temperature of this halo gas is between 1 and 2.5 million K (1.8 and 4.5 million °F).[225]

    Observations of distant galaxies indicate that the Universe had about one-sixth as much baryonic (ordinary) matter as dark matter when it was just a few billion years old. However, only about half of those baryons are accounted for in the modern Universe based on observations of nearby galaxies like the Milky Way.[226] If the finding that the mass of the halo is comparable to the mass of the Milky Way is confirmed, it could be the identity of the missing baryons around the Milky Way.[226]

    Galactic rotation[edit]

    Galaxy rotation curve for the Milky Way – vertical axis is speed of rotation about the galactic center; horizontal axis is distance from the galactic center in kpcs; the sun is marked with a yellow ball; the observed curve of speed of rotation is blue; the predicted curve based upon stellar mass and gas in the Milky Way is red; scatter in observations roughly indicated by gray bars, the difference is due to dark matter[36][227][228]

    The stars and gas in the Milky Way rotate about its center differentially, meaning that the rotation period varies with location. As is typical for spiral galaxies, the orbital speed of most stars in the Milky Way does not depend strongly on their distance from the center. Away from the central bulge or outer rim, the typical stellar orbital speed is between 210 ± 10 km/s (470,000 ± 22,000 mph).[229] Hence the orbital period of the typical star is directly proportional only to the length of the path traveled. This is unlike the situation within the Solar System, where two-body gravitational dynamics dominate, and different orbits have significantly different velocities associated with them. The rotation curve (shown in the figure) describes this rotation. Toward the center of the Milky Way the orbit speeds are too low, whereas beyond 7 kpcs the speeds are too high to match what would be expected from the universal law of gravitation.[citation needed]

    If the Milky Way contained only the mass observed in stars, gas, and other baryonic (ordinary) matter, the rotational speed would decrease with distance from the center. However, the observed curve is relatively flat, indicating that there is additional mass that cannot be detected directly with electromagnetic radiation. This inconsistency is attributed to dark matter.[36] The rotation curve of the Milky Way agrees with the universal rotation curve of spiral galaxies, the best evidence for the existence of dark matter in galaxies. Alternatively, a minority of astronomers propose that a modification of the law of gravity may explain the observed rotation curve.[230]

    Formation[edit]

    Main article: Galaxy formation and evolution

    History[edit]

    The Milky Way began as one or several small overdensities in the mass distribution in the Universe shortly after the Big Bang 13.61 billion years ago.[231][232][233] Some of these overdensities were the seeds of globular clusters in which the oldest remaining stars in what is now the Milky Way formed. Nearly half the matter in the Milky Way may have come from other distant galaxies.[231] Nonetheless, these stars and clusters now comprise the stellar halo of the Milky Way. Within a few billion years of the birth of the first stars, the mass of the Milky Way was large enough so that it was spinning relatively quickly. Due to conservation of angular momentum, this led the gaseous interstellar medium to collapse from a roughly spheroidal shape to a disk. Therefore, later generations of stars formed in this spiral disk. Most younger stars, including the Sun, are observed to be in the disk.[234][235]

    Since the first stars began to form, the Milky Way has grown through both galaxy mergers (particularly early in the Milky Way's growth) and accretion of gas directly from the Galactic halo.[235] The Milky Way is currently accreting material from several small galaxies, including two of its largest satellite galaxies, the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, through the Magellanic Stream. Direct accretion of gas is observed in high-velocity clouds like the Smith Cloud.[236][237] Cosmological simulations indicate that, 11 billion years ago, it merged with a particularly large galaxy that has been labeled the Kraken.[238][239]However, properties of the Milky Way such as stellar mass, angular momentum, and metallicity in its outermost regions suggest it has undergone no mergers with large galaxies in the last 10 billion years. This lack of recent major mergers is unusual among similar spiral galaxies; its neighbour the Andromeda Galaxy appears to have a more typical history shaped by more recent mergers with relatively large galaxies.[240][241]

    According to recent studies, the Milky Way as well as the Andromeda Galaxy lie in what in the galaxy color–magnitude diagram is known as the "green valley", a region populated by galaxies in transition from the "blue cloud" (galaxies actively forming new stars) to the "red sequence" (galaxies that lack star formation). Star-formation activity in green valley galaxies is slowing as they run out of star-forming gas in the interstellar medium. In simulated galaxies with similar properties, star formation will typically have been extinguished within about five billion years from now, even accounting for the expected, short-term increase in the rate of star formation due to the collision between both the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy.[242] In fact, measurements of other galaxies similar to the Milky Way suggest it is among the reddest and brightest spiral galaxies that are still forming new stars and it is just slightly bluer than the bluest red sequence galaxies.[243]

    Age and cosmological history[edit]

    Comparison of the night sky with the night sky of a hypothetical planet within the Milky Way 10 billion years ago, at an age of about 3.6 billion years and 5 billion years before the Sun formed.[244]

    Globular clusters are among the oldest objects in the Milky Way, which thus set a lower limit on the age of the Milky Way. The ages of individual stars in the Milky Way can be estimated by measuring the abundance of long-lived radioactive elements such as thorium-232 and uranium-238, then comparing the results to estimates of their original abundance, a technique called nucleocosmochronology. These yield values of about 12.5 ± 3 billion years for CS 31082-001[245] and 13.8 ± 4 billion years for BD +17° 3248.[246] Once a white dwarf is formed, it begins to undergo radiative cooling and the surface temperature steadily drops. By measuring the temperatures of the coolest of these white dwarfs and comparing them to their expected initial temperature, an age estimate can be made. With this technique, the age of the globular cluster M4 was estimated as 12.7 ± 0.7 billion years. Age estimates of the oldest of these clusters gives a best fit estimate of 12.6 billion years, and a 95% confidence upper limit of 16 billion years.[247]

    In November 2018, astronomers reported the discovery of one of the oldest stars in the universe. About 13.5 billion-years-old, 2MASS J18082002-5104378 B is a tiny ultra metal-poor (UMP) star made almost entirely of materials released from the Big Bang, and is possibly one of the first stars. The discovery of the star in the Milky Way galaxy suggests that the galaxy may be at least 3 billion years older than previously thought.[248][249][250]

    Several individual stars have been found in the Milky Way's halo with measured ages very close to the 13.80-billion-year age of the Universe. In 2007, a star in the galactic halo, HE 1523-0901, was estimated to be about 13.2 billion years old. As the oldest known object in the Milky Way at that time, this measurement placed a lower limit on the age of the Milky Way.[251] This estimate was made using the UV-Visual Echelle Spectrograph of the Very Large Telescope to measure the relative strengths of spectral lines caused by the presence of thorium and other elements created by the R-process. The line strengths yield abundances of different elemental isotopes, from which an estimate of the age of the star can be derived using nucleocosmochronology.[251]Another star, HD 140283, is 14.5 ± 0.7 billion years old.[37][252]

    According to observations utilizing adaptive optics to correct for Earth's atmospheric distortion, stars in the galaxy's bulge date to about 12.8 billion years old.[253]

    The age of stars in the galactic thin disk has also been estimated using nucleocosmochronology. Measurements of thin disk stars yield an estimate that the thin disk formed 8.8 ± 1.7 billion years ago. These measurements suggest there was a hiatus of almost 5 billion years between the formation of the galactic halo and the thin disk.[254] Recent analysis of the chemical signatures of thousands of stars suggests that stellar formation might have dropped by an order of magnitude at the time of disk formation, 10 to 8 billion years ago, when interstellar gas was too hot to form new stars at the same rate as before.[255]

    The satellite galaxies surrounding the Milky way are not randomly distributed but seem to be the result of a break-up of some larger system producing a ring structure 500,000 light-years in diameter and 50,000 light-years wide.[256] Close encounters between galaxies, like that expected in 4 billion years with the Andromeda Galaxy rips off huge tails of gas, which, over time can coalesce to form dwarf galaxies in a ring at an arbitrary angle to the main disc.[257]

    Intergalactic neighbourhood[edit]

    Diagram of the galaxies in the Local Group relative to the Milky Way
    The position of the Local Group within the Laniakea Supercluster
    Main article: Local Group

    The Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy are a binary system of giant spiral galaxies belonging to a group of 50 closely bound galaxies known as the Local Group, surrounded by a Local Void, itself being part of the Local Sheet[258] and in turn the Virgo Supercluster. Surrounding the Virgo Supercluster are a number of voids, devoid of many galaxies, the Microscopium Void to the "north", the Sculptor Void to the "left", the Boötes Void to the "right" and the Canes-Major Void to the "south". These voids change shape over time, creating filamentous structures of galaxies. The Virgo Supercluster, for instance, is being drawn towards the Great Attractor,[259]which in turn forms part of a greater structure, called Laniakea.[260]

    Two smaller galaxies and a number of dwarf galaxies in the Local Group orbit the Milky Way. The largest of these is the Large Magellanic Cloud with a diameter of 32,200 light-years.[261] It has a close companion, the Small Magellanic Cloud. The Magellanic Stream is a stream of neutral hydrogen gas extending from these two small galaxies across 100° of the sky. The stream is thought to have been dragged from the Magellanic Clouds in tidal interactions with the Milky Way.[262] Some of the dwarf galaxies orbiting the Milky Way are Canis Major Dwarf (the closest), Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy, Ursa Minor Dwarf, Sculptor Dwarf, Sextans Dwarf, Fornax Dwarf, and Leo I Dwarf. The smallest dwarf galaxies of the Milky Way are only 500 light-years in diameter. These include Carina Dwarf, Draco Dwarf, and Leo II Dwarf. There may still be undetected dwarf galaxies that are dynamically bound to the Milky Way, which is supported by the detection of nine new satellites of the Milky Way in a relatively small patch of the night sky in 2015.[263] There are also some dwarf galaxies that have already been absorbed by the Milky Way, such as the progenitor of Omega Centauri.[264]

    In 2014 researchers reported that most satellite galaxies of the Milky Way lie in a very large disk and orbit in the same direction.[265] This came as a surprise: according to standard cosmology, the satellite galaxies should form in dark matter halos, and they should be widely distributed and moving in random directions. This discrepancy is still not fully explained.[266]

    In January 2006, researchers reported that the heretofore unexplained warp in the disk of the Milky Way has now been mapped and found to be a ripple or vibration set up by the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds as they orbit the Milky Way, causing vibrations when they pass through its edges. Previously, these two galaxies, at around 2% of the mass of the Milky Way, were considered too small to influence the Milky Way. However, in a computer model, the movement of these two galaxies creates a dark matter wake that amplifies their influence on the larger Milky Way.[267]

    Current measurements suggest the Andromeda Galaxy is approaching us at 100 to 140 km/s (220,000 to 310,000 mph). In 4.3 billion years, there may be an Andromeda–Milky Way collision, depending on the importance of unknown lateral components to the galaxies' relative motion. If they collide, the chance of individual stars colliding with each other is extremely low,[268] but instead the two galaxies will merge to form a single elliptical galaxy or perhaps a large disk galaxy[269] over the course of about six billion years.[270]

    Velocity[edit]

    Although special relativity states that there is no "preferred" inertial frame of reference in space with which to compare the Milky Way, the Milky Way does have a velocity with respect to cosmological frames of reference.

    One such frame of reference is the Hubble flow, the apparent motions of galaxy clusters due to the expansion of space. Individual galaxies, including the Milky Way, have peculiar velocities relative to the average flow. Thus, to compare the Milky Way to the Hubble flow, one must consider a volume large enough so that the expansion of the Universe dominates over local, random motions. A large enough volume means that the mean motion of galaxies within this volume is equal to the Hubble flow. Astronomers believe the Milky Way is moving at approximately 630 km/s (1,400,000 mph) with respect to this local co-moving frame of reference.[271][272] The Milky Way is moving in the general direction of the Great Attractor and other galaxy clusters, including the Shapley Supercluster, behind it.[273] The Local Group (a cluster of gravitationally bound galaxies containing, among others, the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy) is part of a supercluster called the Local Supercluster, centered near the Virgo Cluster: although they are moving away from each other at 967 km/s (2,160,000 mph) as part of the Hubble flow, this velocity is less than would be expected given the 16.8 million pc distance due to the gravitational attraction between the Local Group and the Virgo Cluster.[274]

    Another reference frame is provided by the cosmic microwave background (CMB), in which the CMB temperature is least distorted by Doppler shift (zero dipole moment). The Milky Way is moving at 552 ± 6 km/s (1,235,000 ± 13,000 mph)[16] with respect to this frame, toward 10.5 right ascension, −24° declination (J2000 epoch, near the center of Hydra). This motion is observed by satellites such as the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) and the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) as a dipole contribution to the CMB, as photons in equilibrium in the CMB frame get blue-shifted in the direction of the motion and red-shifted in the opposite direction.[16]


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    "DOCTOR" in the KJV Bible



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    Acts 5:34chapter context similar meaning copy save
    Then stood there up one in the council, a Pharisee, named Gamaliel, a doctor of the law, had in reputation among all the people, and commanded to put the apostles forth a little space;


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    Matthew 5:44chapter context similar meaning copy save
    But I say unto you, Love your enemies, bless them that curse you, do good to them that hate you, and pray for them which despitefully use you, and persecute you;


    Leviticus 26:9chapter context similar meaning copy save
    For I will have respect unto you, and make you fruitful, and multiply you, and establish my covenant with you.


    1 Thessalonians 5:12chapter context similar meaning copy save
    And we beseech you, brethren, to know them which labour among you, and are over you in the Lord, and admonish you;


    Jeremiah 42:10chapter context similar meaning copy save
    If ye will still abide in this land, then will I build you, and not pull you down, and I will plant you, and not pluck you up: for I repent me of the evil that I have done unto you.


    Jeremiah 23:39chapter context similar meaning copy save
    Therefore, behold, I, even I, will utterly forget you, and I will forsake you, and the city that I gave you and your fathers, and cast you out of my presence:


    2 Corinthians 9:14chapter context similar meaning copy save
    And by their prayer for you, which long after you for the exceeding grace of God in you.


    Deuteronomy 28:63chapter context similar meaning copy save
    And it shall come to pass, that as the LORD rejoiced over you to do you good, and to multiply you; so the LORD will rejoice over you to destroy you, and to bring you to nought; and ye shall be plucked from off the land whither thou goest to possess it.


    Leviticus 26:17chapter context similar meaning copy save
    And I will set my face against you, and ye shall be slain before your enemies: they that hate you shall reign over you; and ye shall flee when none pursueth you.


    2 Corinthians 11:20chapter context similar meaning copy save
    For ye suffer, if a man bring you into bondage, if a man devour you, if a man take of you, if a man exalt himself, if a man smite you on the face.


    Ezekiel 20:41chapter context similar meaning copy save
    I will accept you with your sweet savour, when I bring you out from the people, and gather you out of the countries wherein ye have been scattered; and I will be sanctified in you before the heathen.


    Deuteronomy 1:11chapter context similar meaning copy save
    (The LORD God of your fathers make you a thousand times so many more as ye are, and bless you, as he hath promised you!)


    Acts 3:26chapter context similar meaning copy save
    Unto you first God, having raised up his Son Jesus, sent him to bless you, in turning away every one of you from his iniquities.


    John 16:4chapter context similar meaning copy save
    But these things have I told you, that when the time shall come, ye may remember that I told you of them. And these things I said not unto you at the beginning, because I was with you.


    2 Corinthians 10:1chapter context similar meaning copy save
    Now I Paul myself beseech you by the meekness and gentleness of Christ, who in presence am base among you, but being absent am bold toward you:


    Jeremiah 42:12chapter context similar meaning copy save
    And I will shew mercies unto you, that he may have mercy upon you, and cause youto return to your own land.


    Jeremiah 27:10chapter context similar meaning copy save
    For they prophesy a lie unto you, to remove you far from your land; and that I should drive you out, and ye should perish.


    Ezekiel 36:24chapter context similar meaning copy save
    For I will take you from among the heathen, and gather you out of all countries, and will bring you into your own land.


    Matthew 5:11chapter context similar meaning copy save
    Blessed are ye, when men shall revile you, and persecute you, and shall say all manner of evil against you falsely, for my sake.


    Joshua 23:10chapter context similar meaning copy save
    One man of you shall chase a thousand: for the LORD your God, he it is that fighteth for you, as he hath promised you.


    2 Corinthians 11:2chapter context similar meaning copy save
    For I am jealous over you with godly jealousy: for I have espoused you to one husband, that I may present you as a chaste virgin to Christ.


    Deuteronomy 11:25chapter context similar meaning copy save
    There shall no man be able to stand before you: for the LORD your God shall lay the fear of you and the dread of you upon all the land that ye shall tread upon, as he hath said unto you.


    Ezekiel 37:6chapter context similar meaning copy save
    And I will lay sinews upon you, and will bring up flesh upon you, and cover you with skin, and put breath in you, and ye shall live; and ye shall know that I am the LORD.


    Jeremiah 29:10chapter context similar meaning copy save
    For thus saith the LORD, That after seventy years be accomplished at Babylon I will visit you, and perform my good word toward you, in causing you to return to this place.


    Deuteronomy 1:44chapter context similar meaning copy save
    And the Amorites, which dwelt in that mountain, came out against you, and chased you, as bees do, and destroyed you in Seir, even unto Hormah.


    Exodus 10:10chapter context similar meaning copy save
    And he said unto them, Let the LORD be so with you, as I will let you go, and your little ones: look to it; for evil is before you.


    Joshua 24:20chapter context similar meaning copy save
    If ye forsake the LORD, and serve strange gods, then he will turn and do you hurt, and consume you, after that he hath done you good.


    Deuteronomy 20:4chapter context similar meaning copy save
    For the LORD your God is he that goeth with you, to fight for you against your enemies, to save you.


    Colossians 4:12chapter context similar meaning copy save
    Epaphras, who is one of you, a servant of Christ, saluteth you, always labouring fervently for you in prayers, that ye may stand perfect and complete in all the will of God.


    Joshua 23:9chapter context similar meaning copy save
    For the LORD hath driven out from before you great nations and strong: but as for you, no man hath been able to stand before you unto this day.


    Joshua 23:15chapter context similar meaning copy save
    Therefore it shall come to pass, that as all good things are come upon you, which the LORD your God promised you; so shall the LORD bring upon you all evil things, until he have destroyed you from off this good land which the LORD your God hath given you.


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    Presents, a Life with a Plan. My name is Karen Anastasia Placek, I am the author of this Google Blog. This is the story of my journey, a quest to understanding more than myself. The title of my first blog delivered more than a million views!! The title is its work as "The Secret of the Universe is Choice!; know decision" will be the next global slogan. Placed on T-shirts, Jackets, Sweatshirts, it really doesn't matter, 'cause a picture with my slogan is worth more than a thousand words, it's worth??.......Know Conversation!!!
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