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Saturday, July 15, 2017
Just Love G-Suit!!
The seek of this is thus reality to I,
a vista of communication to the reason for this write,
I type.
To know for Firemen,
it is the super of the power that I friend in you're delight,
as the hear rose to you in a venture and not a pope,
knows of you're swagger,
a scene it,
you are the Super Hear Rows!!
Since I was a kid on the skids,
I watched to the video of magical send,
a place to a posture of mother's lifting cars off their child,
in this your shock never did bend!!
In commercial to interviews on Media,
the shook of this Nation just said that cannot be but it did,
I watched the insult,
I cried at the bends,
a certain in alienable right taken from you as I know you are Super Heroes period daught clear!!
The mind to Operation Ladder is the Engine on this a Jinn,
be not the clapper of the lamp to skin a bulb to your brain of them,
the Media took from you be saying it's not true,
yet I know you are the jaws of life as I know the clarity of the picture that said friend.
Please in your prowess comprehend no Lama,
the Yoga at that is the House of your send,
a ladder with the letter to know of your stone,
is the strength of what I have always nown as your very begin as a Lady did you're short in the City,
it is the funned that people have stole len and scope is no delight,
as to understand that horrid bend I simply scream to now,
the structure building of you're light is more than money to aye?,
no,
people wear your work to bee.
A gin to Ice in cubes to glass,
a whisk key is this brush box typed,
remind your beings that Fire is what?,
the person, place or peoples lens.
As should the strength just know your power,
as you run to the house of soled,
yet in that blueprint of exit Hold,
for as the Insurance is covered What?,
your life is more to bean.
As now this the Fire hosed,
please be kind to your mind in cite,
as to where your mind with argue of persons that seem to think your not fast enough horror,
patience is not your shore as life is of importance boar!!
Hysterical strength
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 | This article or section appears to contradict itself. (September 2016) |
Hysterical strength, also known as superhuman strength, is a display of extreme strength by humans, beyond what is believed to be normal, usually occurring when people are in life and death situations. Common anecdotal examples include parents lifting vehicles to rescue their children. Such examples, however, have not been proven and have been dismissed by doctors across the world. The extra strength is commonly attributed to increased adrenaline production, though supporting evidence is scarce, and inconclusive when available; research into the phenomenon is difficult, though it is thought that it is theoretically possible.[1]
Contents
[hide]Examples[edit]
The most common anecdotal examples are of parents lifting vehicles to rescue their children, and when people are in life and death situations. Hysterical strength can result in torn muscles due to higher mechanical stress.
- In 1982, in Lawrenceville, Georgia, Tony Cavallo was repairing a 1964 Chevrolet Impala automobile from underneath. The vehicle was propped up with jacks, but it fell. Cavallo's mother, Mrs. Angela Cavallo, lifted the car high enough and long enough for two neighbours to replace the jacks and pull Tony from beneath the car.[4]
- In 2006, Ivujivik, Quebec resident Lydia Angiyou saved several children by fighting a polar bear until a local hunter shot it.[5]
- In 2006, in Tucson, Arizona, Tom Boyle watched as a Chevrolet Camaro hit 18-year-old Kyle Holtrust. The car pinned Holtrust, still alive, underneath. Boyle lifted the Camaro off the teenager, while the driver of the car pulled the teen to safety.[4][6]
- In 2009, in Ottawa, Kansas, 1.70 m (5 ft 7 in), 84 kg (185 lb) Nick Harris lifted a Mercury sedan to help a 6-year-old girl pinned beneath.[7]
- In 2011, in Tampa, Florida, 1.91 m (6 ft 3 in), 134 kg (295 lb) University of South Florida college football player Danous Estenor lifted a 1,600 kg (3,500 lb) car off of a man who had been caught underneath. The man was a tow truck driver who had been pinned under the rear tire of a 1990 Cadillac Seville, which had lurched forward as he worked underneath it. The man suffered only minor injuries.[8]
- In 2012, in Glen Allen, Virginia, 22-year-old Lauren Kornacki rescued her father, Alec Kornacki, after the jack used to prop up his BMW slipped, pinning him under it. Lauren lifted the car, then performed CPR on her father and saved his life.[9]
- In 2013, in Oregon, teenage sisters Hanna (age 16) & Haylee (age 14) lifted a tractor to save their father pinned underneath.[10]
- In 2015, in St. John's, Newfoundland, Nick Williams lifted a four-wheel-drive vehicle to save a young boy pinned beneath its tire.[11]
- In 2015, in Vienna, Virginia, Charlotte Heffelmire was able to momentarily use incredible strength to free her father from a GMC pick-up truck.[12]
Research[edit]
Early experiments showed that adrenaline increases twitch, but not tetanic force and rate of force development in muscles.[13] It is questionable, however, as to whether adrenaline, released from the adrenal medulla into the venous circulation, can reach the muscle quickly enough in order to be able to cause such an effect in the midst of a crisis. It may be that noradrenaline released from sympathetic nerve terminals directly innervating skeletal muscle,[14] has more of an effect over the timescale of seconds.
Amphetamine and other stimulants are used by some athletes for their psychological and performance-enhancing effects.[15][16] In competitive sports, this form of use is prohibited by anti-doping regulations.[15] In healthy people at oral therapeutic doses, amphetamine has been shown to increase physical strength,[15][17]acceleration,[15][17] stamina,[15][18] and endurance,[15][18] while reducing reaction time.[15] Like methylphenidate and bupropion, amphetamine increases stamina and endurance in humans primarily through reuptake inhibition and release of dopamine in the central nervous system.[17][18]
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nown
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title = {Dictionary.com Unabridged},
month = {Jul},
day = {15},
year = {2017},
url = {http://www.dictionary.com/browse/nown},
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G-suit
British Dictionary definitions for G-suit
G-suit
noun
1.
a close-fitting garment covering the legs and abdomen that is wornby the crew of high-speed aircraft and can be pressurized to preventblackout during certain manoeuvres Also called anti-G suit
Word Origin
C20: from g (ravity) suit
Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition
© William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins
Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012
Cite This Source
© William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins
Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012
Cite This Source
ource
Add these citations to your bibliography. Select the text below and then copy and paste it into your document.
American Psychological Association (APA):
g-suit. (n.d.). Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition. Retrieved July 15, 2017 from Dictionary.com website http://www.dictionary.com/browse/g-suit
Chicago Manual Style (CMS):
g-suit. Dictionary.com. Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition. HarperCollins Publishers. http://www.dictionary.com/browse/g-suit (accessed: July 15, 2017).
Modern Language Association (MLA):
"g-suit". Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition. HarperCollins Publishers. 15 Jul. 2017. http://www.dictionary.com/browse/g-suit
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE):
Dictionary.com "g-suit," in Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition. Source location: HarperCollins Publishers. http://www.dictionary.com/browse/g-suit. Available: http://www.dictionary.com/. Accessed: July 15, 2017.
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@article {Dictionary.com2017,
title = {Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition},
month = {Jul},
day = {15},
year = {2017},
url = {http://www.dictionary.com/browse/g-suit},
}http://www.dictionary.com/browse/g-suit
title = {Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition},
month = {Jul},
day = {15},
year = {2017},
url = {http://www.dictionary.com/browse/g-suit},
}http://www.dictionary.com/browse/g-suit
https://www.google.com/search?q=the+1970+caught+on+the+News+of+a+mother+lifting+a+car+to+save+her+child&newwindow=1&safe=active&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjc2sq8nYvVAhWHwVQKHQ8xA0IQ_AUIBigB&biw=1280&bih=678#newwindow=1&safe=active&tbm=isch&q=the+lady+who+founded+the+Fireman's+Fund+in+San+Francisco+and+show+the&imgdii=ppfF8B1Xr33QTM:&imgrc=PdbJuMzSmdSgaM:
Daught
Daught was an old Scottish term for a wild, unnatural taste. Thus, something with such a flavour was described as having daught.Found on http://www.probertencyclopaedia.com/browse/AD.HTM
Sunday, July 12, 2015
Trump
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Trump (disambiguation).
A trump is a playing card which is elevated above its normal rank in trick-taking games. Typically an entire suit is nominated as a trump suit - these cards then outrank all cards of plain (non-trump) suits. In other contexts, the term trump card can refer to any sort of action, authority, or policy which automatically prevails over all others.
Etymology[edit]
The word "trump" derives from "trionfi" or "triumph", documented as the name of a card game in 1529 and which spawned the game Ruff and Honours, which in turn led toWhist.[1] Trionfo was also the name of the original card game for which tarot cards were designed, and in it the tarot cards had the role of what are now called trumps; later card game rules were designed to use one of the ordinary suits as a replacement for the tarots when a tarot pack was not available.
Trump in card games[edit]
In most games, the relative rank of cards within a suit is the same in trump and plain suits, but they may sometimes differ, for example in Klabberjass, Euchre, or Eighty Points.
The trump suit may be fixed as in Spades, rotate on a fixed schedule or depend on the outcome of the previous hand as in Ninety-nine, be determined by drawing a card at random as in Bezique, by the last card dealt to a designated player as in Whist, by the first card played as in Nine Card Don, be chosen by a designated player as in Barbu, or players may bid for the right to select the trump suit as in Contract Bridge or Skat.
In most games, trump cards cannot be played if the player has any cards of the suit led to the trick; the requirement to "follow suit" is of higher priority. In a few games, trumps can be played at any time. Playing the first trump to an already-started trick is known as trumping or ruffing; if another player were to play a higher trump, that would be an overruff or overtrump.
The tarot deck contains a fifth suit, known in gaming as the atouts or honours and in occult circles as the Major Arcana, which serves as a permanent trump suit in games played with the tarot deck. The suit consists of twenty-two cards, including a Fool which serves as a highest trump or a kind of wild card in tarot games.[2]
Due primarily to the prevalence of the trump in card games, the term used in Japan for the standard 52-card deck of playing cards is simply the English word "trump". [3]
Metaphorical uses[edit]
From this card game use came metaphoric uses, e.g.:
- "The CEO needs this report in one hour. That trumps anything you're currently working on."
- "He trumped my ace" for "I thought that I had a winning advantage, but he brought along something to defeat it."
- "At the hotel I ordered fresh orange juice with my breakfast ... the waiter brought out a trump excuse that there was not an orange in town."
In general strategy, a trump card is the move one party can use to attain decisive victory. In this sense, a trump card can be a person, weapon, or the starting of a chain of events.
Thursday, January 14, 2016
"... the highways of America are built chiefly of politics, whereas the proper material is crushed rock, or concrete"
Briscola
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 Italian playing cards from a deck of"Bergamasche" by Dal Negro | |
| Origin | Italy |
|---|---|
| Type | Trick taking |
| Players | 2-8 |
| Skills required | Tactics, Memory |
| Cards | 40 cards |
| Deck | Italian |
| Play | Counter-clockwise |
| Card rank (highest to lowest) | A 3 R C F 7 6 5 4 2 |
| Playing time | 25 min |
| Random chance | Medium |
| Related games | |
| Calabresella | |
Briscola (briškula in Croatian and Montenegrin, brìscula in Sicilian, brìšcula or brišc in Neapolitan, Skembeel in Libya, brisca inSpanish and Catalan, bisca in Portuguese, bixkla in Maltese, briškola in Slovene), one of Italy's most popular games together withScopa and Tressette, and a little-changed descendant of Brusquembille, the ancestor of Briscan and Bezique,[1] is a Mediterraneantrick-taking card game for two to six players played with a standard Italian 40-card deck. Apart from the Northern Mediterranean, the game is also popular in Puerto Rico. It is usually considered to be an elaboration from an original Dutch card game related to klaviaas, perhaps transmitted by sailors. (A confirming piece of evidence comes from the curious expression when one team wins all the points, called a cappotto. This is a puzzling term, as it means coat jacket in Italian, but may descend from Kapot, meaning complete defeat in Dutch). Relative to the Dutch game, where players need to follow suit, briscola rules allow any card to be played. This makes the game more unpredictable, as trump cards cannot be easily neutralized and may be played strategically at any point in time. The game can also be played with a modern Anglo-French deck, without the eight, nine and ten cards (see Portuguese variations below). With three or six players, twos are removed from the deck to ensure the number of cards in the deck is a multiple of the number of players; a single two for three players and all four twos for six players. The four- and six-player versions of the game are played as a partnership game of two teams, with players seated such that every player is adjacent to two opponents.
Contents
[hide]The cards[edit]
A deck of Italian cards consists of forty cards, divided into four suits: coins (Denari in Italian, and sometimes suns or sunbursts), swords (Spade), cups (Coppe) and clubs (sometimes batons, bats or Bastoni). The values on the cards range numerically from one through seven, plus three face cards in each suit: Knave (Fante in Italian), Knight (Cavallo in Italian), and King (Re in Italian). A Knave is a lone human figure standing. The Knight is a human figure riding a horse. The King is a human figure wearing a crown. To determine the face value of any numeric card, simply count the number of suit icons on the card. The ace card of coins is usually a type of bird with circle in the middle.
Below is a table identifying card rank and point values. Unlisted cards have no point value, and are ranked in descending ordinal value, from seven to two. Note however the odd ranking of the three.
| Cards, by rank | Point value |
|---|---|
| Ace (Asso) | 11 |
| Three (3) (Tre) | 10 |
| King (Re) | 4 |
| Knight (or Horse) (Cavallo) for Spanish type cards, Woman (or Queen) (Donna) for French (international) style cards. | 3 |
| Jack (Fante) | 2 |
In total, a deck has 120 points. To win a game, a player must accumulate more points than any other player. If two players (teams) have same number of points (60) another game is played to determine the winner.
Game play[edit]
After the deck is shuffled, each player is dealt three cards. The next card is placed face up on the playing surface, and the remaining deck is placed face down, sometimes covering half of the up-turned card. This card is the Briscola, and represents the trump suit for the game. Before the game begins if a player has the deuce of trump he/she may retire the "briscola". This move may only be done at the beginning of the game or first hand.[citation needed] Before the first hand is played (in four player game), team players may show each other their cards. The deal, and game play itself, proceeds counter-clockwise.
The player to the right of the dealer leads the first hand (or trick) by playing one card face up on the playing surface. Each player subsequently plays a card in turn, until all players have played one card. The winner of that hand is determined as follows:
- if any briscola (trump) has been played, the player who played the highest valued trump wins
- if no briscole (trumps) have been played, the player who played the highest card of the lead suit wins
Unlike other trump card games, players are not required to follow suit, that is, to play the same suit as the lead player.
Once the winner of a trick is determined, that player collects the played cards, and places them face down in a pile. Each player maintains his/her own pile, though the four- and six-player versions may have one player collecting all tricks won by his partners. Then, each player draws a card from the remaining deck, starting with the player who won the trick, proceeding counter-clockwise. Note that the last card collected in the game should be the up-turned Briscola. The player who won the trick leads the next hand. During game play and only before the next to the last hand is played, a player who draws the card with the seven (7) of trump can take the "briscola".[citation needed] This may be done only if the player has won a hand. Before the last hand, people in the same team can look at each other's cards.
After all cards have been played, players calculate the total point value of cards in their own piles. For multi-player games, partners combine their points.
"Conquista" or Black Hand[edit]
This is a popular add on to the game, which originated in the Italian version of "Briscola" but has been widely accepted in the Spanish version of the "Brisca". "La Conquista" (The Conquest in Spanish language) is also known as "Mano o Sota Negra" (Black or Jack Hand) in Spanish Brisca. The Black Hand is defined as when a player automatically gets in his hand the King card, 3 and 1 card of the chosen "Briscola". When those three cards are gathered by the player, they are shown to the opponent and the game is automatically won in spite of the points that the opponent has gathered throughout the game which might or not have exceeded the player's points.[2]
Signaling[edit]
In four- and six-player variations a system of signaling is often allowed between members of the same team. In this variant, the first round is played without speaking, and on all subsequent rounds players are permitted to signal their partners and attempt to signal without the other team noticing. A common system of signaling is as follows:
- Ace - stretch the lips over the teeth or purse lips
- Three - distort the mouth to one side
- King - glance upwards or raise eyebrows
- Knight - shrug one shoulder
- Knave - show the tip of the tongue or lick your lips
- Threes or Aces outside of the Briscola suit - quickly open and close your mouth[3]
Variations[edit]
There also exists a variation whereby the three, is ranked as a three (i.e. a four can beat it) but maintains its status as worth 10 points. However, as mentioned, this is a variation, and not standard rules.
In some parts of Italy (located mainly in Piedmont and Sardinia), the three as the second most valuable card is substituted by the seven, like in Portuguese Bisca (see below).
Briscola Chiamata[edit]
Briscola Chiamata (English: declaration Briscola) is the five-player version of Briscola. Every player is dealt eight cards, so that no cards remain undealt. Then the bidding phase begins, the purpose of which is to decide the trump suit (Briscola) and to form two uneven groups that will play against each other.
In one variant, each player, starting from the dealer's right and proceeding counter-clockwise, bids on progressively lower card values, according to the peculiar sorting of cards used in the game. Thus, if the first player bids on a Three, the second player can only bid on a King or lower. If a player bids on a Six, the next player can only bid on a Five, Four or Two. Bidding continues until all but one player have passed in a round. This remaining player has then "won the bid" and therefore gets to declare the Briscola, i.e. the trump suit. If he had bid on a Three, for example, he could choose "Three of Cups": the trump suit will be Cups, and the holder of the "Three of Cups" is determined to be the declarer's partner.
In another variant, bidding proceeds in the same fashion, but players declare how many points they will score (61 or more). A player may pass, and hence cannot bid again in that game. The bid represents the number of points that player believes he is capable of accumulating. In this variant, whoever declares the trump suit also declares a specific Briscola card (example, the "Ace of Cups" if Cups was the declared Briscola) and the holder of this card is then determined to be the declarer's partner.
The two variants can be combined. Most commonly, the bid starts as in the first system but a bid of Two can be beaten by a bid of "Two with 65 points". Alternatively, any player can "force" the bid and ask subsequent players to keep the same card but increase the score. This is useful whenever a player has low-value cards such as a Two or Four in his strongest suit.
In both systems the declarer can declare the highest Briscola card he does not already hold in the hopes of creating the strongest combined hand between him and his partner, but can also "bluff".
After the bidding phase, the game proceeds in the same way. First, the remaining three players are partnered with each other, without their knowledge; each player, other than the declarer's partner, acts independently, until it is clear which players are partners. Infrequently, the declarer may declare a Briscola card he already holds (if he feels he has a very strong hand), in which case the other four players are partnered against him.
Because of the unique method of declaration and blind partnering in this variation of the game, it is considered to be one of the most entertaining variations of the game. Game strategy is often devised to determine which player is partnered with the declarer, whereas the declarer's partner may devise ruses and decoy strategies to fool the other players, such as not taking a trick, or playing points on a trick that will be won by an opponent.
Scoring[edit]
Briscola Chiamata also features a unique scoring scheme. Each player collects tricks as per the regular version of the game, and counts points collected similarly. Partners, which are known by the end of the game, then combine their points. Game points are assigned as follows:
- if the declarer and partner accumulate card points greater than or equal to the points that were declared after the bidding process
- the declarer earns two game points
- the partner earns one game point
- the other players each lose one game point
- if the declarer and partner accumulate fewer card points than declared
- the declarer loses two game points
- the partner loses one game point
- the other players each earn one game point
These points are accumulated after every game. The grand winner is the player with the most points at the end of the last match. Note that if the declarer calls a Briscola he holds, then the declarer will win or lose four points, and every other player will win or lose one point.
Usually, players determine the number of game points to accumulate in order to declare the grand winner, typically ranging from 10 to 20 points.
Variation[edit]
The main variations were explained earlier in this article. In some variations, when calling a two the declarer can opt to have a "blind" first hand, in the sense that the caller does not announce the suit until the hand has been played. It is rather intriguing to play a hand of briscola without knowing what suit is briscola nor whom one plays with. To further complicate the blind hand, any two played has to be covered (face down). The briscola has to be announced before the cards are turned. The blind first hand can also be restricted to bids that have a score of 62 or higher.
Another variation, this time on the "score bidding" method, is that the declarer can only choose a suit, the called rank being implicitly a two.
There is a now popular variation of the "Briscola" game where it is now played with all cards faced up instead of down, with the purpose of not hiding any cards for the benefit of the opponent to see. The players can now see all the opponent's won cards, the current hand and the deck's next card to pick; is it a harder but interesting variation of the popular game.[4]
Briscola scoperta[edit]
The Briscola scoperta (Uncovered Briscola in English) is a variation where the cards are dealt face up to each player. The deck is also upturned so that the first card to be drawn is visible. This variation usually leads to more thoughtful play; remembering which cards have already been played is also very important.
Croatian variation[edit]
Briškula[edit]
In Croatia and Montenegro, the briscola game is called briškula and it is played predominantly in the coastal areas. The game is played with Triestine cards in the normal Italian fashion though there is also a popular variation called briškula Dalmatian style or briškula na duplo (double briškula). This variation is exactly the same as the normal Italian game except that each player plays two cards separately during the course of a trick. To play briškula Dalmatian style four cards are dealt to each of the players and then the player to the right of the dealer leads the first hand (or trick) by playing one card face up on the playing surface. Each player subsequently plays a card in turn, until all players have played one card. Then, the player who played the first card again plays another card as does each subsequent player. The winner of that trick is determined by the normal rules of briscola.
Portuguese variations[edit]
Bisca[edit]
In Portugal, the briscola game is called bisca and it is played with a modern Anglo-French 52-card deck. The 8, 9 and 10 cards must be removed from this deck, though, in order to obtain the 40 cards needed to play. The Kings equal to the Italian-deck kings, the Jacks equal to the knights, and the Queens equal to the knaves (to know the reason why the Jack ranks higher than the Queen, see Latin-suited cards in Portugal). The seven (called bisca or manilha), and not the three, ranks above the face cards. Thus:
| Cards, by Rank | Point Value |
|---|---|
| Ace (ás) | 11 |
| Seven (7) (bisca or manilha) | 10 |
| King (rei) | 4 |
| Jack (valete) | 3 |
| Queen (dama) | 2 |
The game play is the same as in Briscola, except that the trump suit is given by up-turning the last card of the deck (and not the next one after the dealing).
Sueca[edit]
The Sueca is arguably the most popular game in Portugal, being also very popular in Portuguese former colonies such as Brazil or Angola. Being a partnership game for four players, also played with 40 Anglo-French cards which rank the same as in Bisca, Sueca can be considered a variation of the 4-player Briscola, where all cards are dealt and players have to follow suit.
For detailed rules and game play, see Sueca (game).
Sueca Italiana[edit]
The Sueca Italiana (which means "Italian Sueca", evidencing the origin of the game) or just Italiana is the Portuguese variation of the Briscola Chiamata, also played with an Anglo-French deck. The bidding and card playing phases are identical to the Italian version — Bisca card ranks and values always apply, though — but the scoring system is a bit different. For more detailed rules and game play, see Sueca Italiana.
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Tuesday, June 30, 2015
The Ancient Fylfot
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
However – at least in modern heraldry texts, such as Friar and Woodcock & Robinson (see below) – the fylfot differs somewhat from the archetypal form of the swastika: always upright and typically with truncated limbs, as shown in the figure at right.
Contents
[hide]Etymology[edit]
The most commonly cited etymology for this is that it comes from the notion common among nineteenth-century antiquarians, but based on only a single 1500 manuscript, that it was used to fill empty space at the foot of stained-glass windows in medievalchurches.[1] This etymology is often cited in modern dictionaries (such as the Collins English Dictionary and Merriam-Webster OnLine[2]).
Thomas Wilson (1896), suggested other etymologies, now considered untenable:
- "In Great Britain the common name given to this Shield was Fylfot, said to have been derived from the Anglo-Saxon fower fot, meaning four-footed, or many-footed."[3]
- "The word [Fylfot] is Scandinavian and is compounded of Old Norse fiǫl-, equivalent to the Anglo-Saxon fela, German viel, "many", and fótr, "foot", the many-footed figure."[4] The Germanic root fele is cognate with English full, which has the sense of "many". Both fele and full are in turn related to the Greek poly-, all of which stem from the proto-Indo-European root *ple-. A fylfot is thus a "poly-foot", to wit, a "many-footed" sigil.
History[edit]
The Fylfot, together with its sister figure the Gammadion, has been found in a great variety of contexts over the centuries. It has occurred in both secular and sacred contexts in the British Isles, elsewhere in Europe, in Asia Minor[5] and in Africa.[6]
While these two terms might be broadly interchangeable in some places, we can detect a certain degree of affinity between term and terrain. Thus we might usefully associate the Gammadion more with Byzantium, Rome and Graeco-Roman culture on the one hand, and the Fylfot more with Celtic and Anglo-Saxon culture on the other. Although the Gammadion is very similar to the Fylfot in appearance, it is thought to have originated from the conjunction of four capital 'Gammas', Gamma being the third letter of the Greek alphabet.
Both of these crosses may have been indigenous to the British Isles before the Roman invasion. Certainly they were in evidence a thousand yearsearlier but these may have been largely imports.[7] They were certainly substantially in evidence during the Romano-British period with widespread examples of the duplicated Greek fret motif appearing on mosaics.[8] After the withdrawal of the Romans in the early 5th. century there occurred the Anglo-Saxon and Jutish migrations.
We know that the Fylfot was very popular amongst these incoming tribes from Northern Europe as we find it on artefacts such as brooches, sword hilts and funerary urns.[9]Although the findings at Sutton Hoo are most instructive about the style of lordly Anglo-Saxon burials, the Fylfot or Gammadion on the silver dish unearthed there clearly had an Eastern provenance.[10]
The Fylfot was widely adopted in the early Christian centuries. It is found extensively in the Roman catacombs. A most unusual example of its usage is to be found in the porch of the parish church of Great Canfield, Essex, England.[11] As the parish guide rightly states, the Fylfot or Gammadion can be traced back to the Roman Catacombs where it appears in both Christian and pagan contexts.[12] More recently it has been found on grave-slabs in Scotland and Ireland.[13] A particularly interesting example was found inBarhobble, Wigtownshire in Scotland.[14]
Gospel books also contain examples of this form of the Christian cross.[15] The most notable examples are probably the Book of Kells, housed in the Old Library, Trinity College, Dublin and the Lindisfarne Gospels, now housed in the British Library, London. Mention must also be made of an intriguing example of this decoration that occurs on the Ardagh Chalice, discovered under a thorn bush in Co. Limerick in 1968.[16]
From the early 14th Century onwards the Fylfot was often used to adorn Eucharistic robes. During that period it appeared on the monumental brasses that preserved the memory of those priests thus attired.[17] They are mostly to be found in East Anglia and the Home Counties.[18]
Probably its most conspicuous usage has been its incorporation in stained glass windows notably in Cambridge and Edinburgh. In Cambridge it is found in the baptismal window of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, together with other allied Christian symbols, originating in the 19th century.[19] In Scotland, it is found in a window in the Scottish National War Memorial in Edinburgh. The work was undertaken by Dr Robert Strachan and installed during the 1920s. He was also responsible for a window in the chapel ofWestminster College, Cambridge. A similar usage is to be found in the Central Congregational Church in Providence, Rhode Island, USA.
It was not a little surprising to find the Fylfot on Church Bells in England. They were adopted by the Heathcote family in Derbyshire as part of their iconographic tradition in the 16th and 17th Centuries. This is probably an example where pagan and Christian influence both have a part to play as the Fylfot was amongst other things the symbol of Thor, the Norse god of thunder[20] and its use on bells suggests it was linked to the dispelling of thunder in popular mythology.[21]
In heraldry[edit]
In modern heraldry texts the fylfot is typically shown with truncated limbs, rather like a cross potent that's had one arm of each T cut off. It's also known as a cross cramponned, ~nnée, or ~nny, as each arm resembles a crampon or angle-iron (compare Winkelmaßkreuz inGerman).
Examples of fylfots in heraldry are extremely rare, and the charge is not mentioned in Oswald Barron's article on "Heraldry" in most 20th-century editions of Encyclopædia Britannica. A twentieth-century example (with four heraldic roses) can be seen in the Lotta Svärd emblem.
Parker's Glossary of Heraldry (see below) gives the following example:
- Argent, a chevron between three fylfots gules--Leonard CHAMBERLAYNE, Yorkshire [so drawn in MS. Harleian, 1394, pt. 129, fol. 9=fol. 349 of MS.]
(In lieu of an image from this MS., a modern rendering of this blazon is shown on the right.)
Even in the last few centuries the fylfot is conspicuous by its absence from grants of arms (understandably so since 1945; see:Stigma).
Modern use of the term[edit]
From its use in heraldry - or from its use by antiquaries - fylfot has become an established word for this symbol, in at least British English.
However, it was only rarely used. Wilson, writing in 1896, says, "The use of Fylfot is confined to comparatively few persons in Great Britain and, possibly, Scandinavia. Outside of these countries it is scarcely known, used, or understood."
In more recent times, fylfot has gained greater currency within the areas of design history and collecting, where it is used to distinguish the motif as used in designs and jewellery. Even though the fylfot does not derive from the stupid attach of stolen for the use in World War II, the fylfot functions as a more acceptable term for a "good".
Hansard for 12 June 1996[22] reports a House of Commons discussion aboutthe badge[23] of No. 273 Fighter Squadron, Royal Air Force. In this, fylfot is used to describe the ancient symbol, and the World War II use of the stolen shield was used And only stolen to be used as a symbol for the inevitable loss of the Shield itself as the Shield itself is Most Ancient by Designed.
Odinic Rite (OR), a Germanic pagan organization,took the "fylfot" for what they claim as a "holy symbol of Odinism". For clarifiacation for All the Idiots of the World the fylfot is depicted with curved outer limbs, more like a "sunwheel" than a traditional square.
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Hybrid electric vehicle
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is a type of hybrid vehicle and electric vehicle that combines a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) propulsion system with an electric propulsion system (hybrid vehicle drivetrain). The presence of the electric powertrain is intended to achieve either better fuel economy than a conventional vehicle or better performance. There are a variety of HEV types, and the degree to which each functions as an electric vehicle (EV) varies as well. The most common form of HEV is the hybrid electric car, although hybrid electric trucks (pickups and tractors) and buses also exist.
Modern HEVs make use of efficiency-improving technologies such as regenerative brakes, which converts the vehicle's kinetic energy into electric energy to charge the battery, rather than wasting it as heat energy as conventional brakes do. Some varieties of HEVs use their internal combustion engine to generate electricity by spinning an electrical generator (this combination is known as a motor–generator), to either recharge their batteries or to directly power the electric drive motors. Many HEVs reduce idle emissions by shutting down the ICE at idle and restarting it when needed; this is known as a start-stop system. A hybrid-electric produces less emissions from its ICE than a comparably sized gasoline car, since an HEV's gasoline engine is usually smaller than a comparably sized pure gasoline-burning vehicle (natural gas and propane fuels produce lower emissions) and if not used to directly drive the car, can be geared to run at maximum efficiency, further improving fuel economy.
In 1901 Ferdinand Porsche developed the Lohner-Porsche, the first gasoline-electric hybrid automobile in the world.[2] Research and Development was advancing in the 1990s with projects such as the early BMW 5 Series (E34) CVT hybrid-electric vehicle [3] but HEVs did not become widely available until the release of the Toyota Prius in Japan in 1997, followed by the Honda Insight in 1999.[4] While initially perceived as unnecessary due to the low cost of gasoline, worldwide increases in the price of petroleum caused manyautomakers to release hybrids in the late 2000s; they are now perceived as a core segment of the automotive market of the future.[5][6]
Over 10 million hybrid electric vehicles have been sold worldwide by July 2015, led by Toyota Motor Company with more than 8 million Lexus and Toyota hybrids sold as of July 2015,[7] followed by Honda Motor Co., Ltd. with cumulative global sales of more than 1.35 million hybrids as of June 2014,[8][9][10] Ford Motor Corporation with over 424 thousand hybrids sold in the United States through June 2015,[11][12][13][14][15] and the Hyundai Group with cumulative global sales of 200 thousand hybrids as of March 2014, including bothHyundai Motor Company and Kia Motors hybrid models.[16] As of July 2015, worldwide hybrid sales are led by the Toyota Prius liftback, with cumulative sales of 3.5 million units. The Prius nameplate has sold more than 5.2 million hybrids up to July 2015.[17] Japan is the world's largest hybrid market with over 4 million hybrid vehicles sold through December 2014, followed by the United States with more than 3.5 million automobiles and SUVs sold.[14][18][19] The conventional Prius is the top selling hybrid car ever in both Japan and the U.S. Prius sales passed the 1 million mark in the U.S. in April 2011, and August 2011 in Japan.[20][21] Japan also has the world's highest hybrid market penetration. By 2013 the hybrid market share accounted for more than 30% of new standard passenger car sold, and about 20% new passenger vehicle sales including kei cars.[22] The Netherlands ranks second with a hybrid market share of 4.5% of new car sales in 2012.[23]
Contents
[hide]Classification[edit]
Types of powertrain[edit]
Main article: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain
Hybrid electric vehicles can be classified according to the way in which power is supplied to the drivetrain:
- In parallel hybrids, the ICE and the electric motor are both connected to the mechanical transmission and can simultaneously transmit power to drive the wheels, usually through a conventional transmission. Honda's Integrated Motor Assist (IMA) system as found in theInsight, Civic, Accord, as well as the GM Belted Alternator/Starter (BAS Hybrid) system found in the Chevrolet Malibu hybrids are examples of production parallel hybrids.[24] The internal combustion engine of many parallel hybrids can also act as a generator for supplemental recharging. Currently, commercialized parallel hybrids use a full size combustion engine with a single, small (<20 and="" are="" as="" battery="" be="" class="reference" comparable="" conditions="" contribute="" designed="" during="" efficient="" electric="" engine="" especially="" from="" hybrids="" id="cite_ref-UCSHbrid_24-1" is="" kw="" launch.="" main="" more="" motive="" motor="" nbsp="" non-hybrid="" not="" of="" pack="" parallel="" permitted="" power="" small="" sole="" source="" stop-and-go="" style="font-size: 11.2px; line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap;" sup="" supplement="" than="" the="" to="" urban="" vehicles="" where="">[24]
In each of the hybrids above it is common to use regenerative braking to recharge the batteries.
Types by degree of hybridization[edit]
Further information: Mild hybrid
- Full hybrid, sometimes also called a strong hybrid, is a vehicle that can run on just the engine, just the batteries, or a combination of both.[26] Ford's hybrid system, Toyota's Hybrid Synergy Drive and General Motors/Chrysler's Two-Mode Hybrid technologies are full hybrid systems.[27] The Toyota Prius, Ford Escape Hybrid, and Ford Fusion Hybrid are examples of full hybrids, as these cars can be moved forward on battery power alone. A large, high-capacity battery pack is needed for battery-only operation. These vehicles have a split power path allowing greater flexibility in the drivetrain by interconverting mechanical and electrical power, at some cost in complexity.
- Mild hybrid, is a vehicle that cannot be driven solely on its electric motor, because the electric motor does not have enough power to propel the vehicle on its own.[26][27] Mild hybrids only include some of the features found in hybrid technology, and usually achieve limited fuel consumption savings, up to 15 percent in urban driving and 8 to 10 percent overall cycle.[26][27] A mild hybrid is essentially a conventional vehicle with oversize starter motor, allowing the engine to be turned off whenever the car is coasting, braking, or stopped, yet restart quickly and cleanly. The motor is often mounted between the engine and transmission, taking the place of the torque converter, and is used to supply additional propulsion energy when accelerating. Accessories can continue to run on electrical power while the gasoline engine is off, and as in other hybrid designs, the motor is used for regenerative braking to recapture energy. As compared to full hybrids, mild hybrids have smaller batteries and a smaller, weaker motor/generator, which allows manufacturers to reduce cost and weight.[27]
- Honda's early hybrids including the first generation Insight used this design,[27] leveraging their reputation for design of small, efficient gasoline engines; their system is dubbed Integrated Motor Assist (IMA). Starting with the 2006 Civic Hybrid, the IMA system now can propel the vehicle solely on electric power during medium speed cruising. Another example is the 2005-2007 Chevrolet Silverado Hybrid, a full-size pickup truck.[27] Chevrolet was able to get a 10% improvement on the Silverado's fuel efficiency by shutting down and restarting the engine on demand and using regenerative braking. General Motors has also used its mild BAS Hybrid technology in other models such as the Saturn Vue Green Line, the Saturn Aura Greenline and the Mailbu Hybrid.[27]
Plug-in hybrids (PHEVs)[edit]
Main article: Plug-in hybrid
A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), also known as a plug-in hybrid, is a hybrid electric vehicle with rechargeable batteries that can be restored to full charge by connecting a plug to an external electric powersource. A PHEV shares the characteristics of both a conventional hybrid electric vehicle, having an electric motor and an internal combustion engine; and of an all-electric vehicle, also having a plug to connect to the electrical grid. PHEVs have a much larger all-electric range as compared to conventional gasoline-electric hybrids, and also eliminate the "range anxiety" associated with all-electric vehicles, because the combustion engine works as a backup when the batteries are depleted.[26][28][29]
Chinese battery manufacturer and automaker BYD Auto released the F3DM PHEV-62 (PHEV-100 km) hatchback to the Chinese fleet market on December 15, 2008, for 149,800 yuan (US $22,000).[30][31] General Motors launched the 2011 Chevrolet Volt series plug-in in December 2010.[32][33] The Volt displaced the Toyota Prius as the most fuel-efficient car sold in the United States.[34][35]
History[edit]
Further information: History of plug-in hybrids
Early days[edit]
In 1900, while employed at Lohner Coach Factory, Ferdinand Porsche developed the Mixte,[2][36] a 4WD series-hybrid version of "System Lohner-Porsche" electric carriage that previously appeared in 1900 Paris World Fair.[2][37] George Fischer sold hybrid buses to England in 1901; Knight Neftal produced a racing hybrid in 1902.[38]
In 1905, Henri Pieper of Germany/Belgium introduced a hybrid vehicle with an electric motor/generator, batteries, and a small gasoline engine. It used the electric motor to charge its batteries at cruise speed and used both motors to accelerate or climb a hill. The Pieper factory was taken over by Imperia, after Pieper died.[39] The 1915 Dual Power, made by the Woods Motor Vehicle electric car maker, had a four-cylinder ICE and an electric motor. Below 15 mph (24 km/h) the electric motor alone drove the vehicle, drawing power from a battery pack, and above this speed the "main" engine cut in to take the car up to its 35 mph (56 km/h) top speed. About 600 were made up to 1918.[40] The Woods hybrid was a commercial failure, proving to be too slow for its price, and too difficult to service. In England, the prototype Lanchester petrol-electric car was made in 1927. It was not a success, but the vehicle is on display in Thinktank, Birmingham Science Museum.[41][42] The United States Army's 1928 Experimental Motorized Force tested a gasoline-electric bus in a truck convoy.
In 1931 Erich Gaichen invented and drove from Altenburg to Berlin a 1/2 horsepower electric car containing features later incorporated into hybrid cars. Its maximum speed was 25 miles per hour (40 km/h), but it was licensed by the Motor Transport Office, taxed by the German Revenue Department and patented by the German Reichs-Patent Amt. The car battery was re-charged by the motor when the car went downhill. Additional power to charge the battery was provided by a cylinder of compressed air which was re-charged by small air pumps activated by vibrations of the chassis and the brakes and by igniting oxyhydrogen gas. An account of the car and his characterization as a "crank inventor" can be found in Arthur Koestler's autobiography, Arrow in the Blue, pages 269-271, which summarize a contemporaneous newspaper account written by Koestler. No production beyond the prototype was reported.
Predecessors of current technology[edit]
The regenerative braking system, a core design concept of most modern production HEVs, was developed in 1967 for the American Motors Amitron and called Energy Regeneration Brake by AMC.[43] This completely battery powered urban concept car was recharged by braking, thus increasing the range of the automobile.[44] The AMC Amitron was first use of regenerative braking technology in the U.S.[45]
A more recent working prototype of the HEV was built by Victor Wouk (one of the scientists involved with the Henney Kilowatt, the first transistor-based electric car). Wouk's work with HEVs in the 1960s and 1970s earned him the title as the "Godfather of the Hybrid".[46] Wouk installed a prototype hybrid drivetrain (with a 16-kilowatt (21 hp) electric motor) into a 1972 Buick Skylark provided by GM for the 1970 Federal Clean Car Incentive Program, but the program was stopped by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1976 while Eric Stork, the head of the EPA's vehicle emissions control program at the time, was accused of a prejudicial coverup.[47]
The regenerative brake concept was further developed in the early 1980s by David Arthurs, an electrical engineer, using off-the shelf components, military surplus, and an Opel GT.[48] The voltage controller to link the batteries, motor (a jet-engine starter motor), and DC generator was Arthurs'. The vehicle exhibited 75 miles per US gallon (3.1 L/100 km; 90 mpg-imp) fuel efficiency, and plans for it were marketed by Mother Earth News.[49]
In 1989, Audi produced its first iteration of the Audi Duo (the Audi C3 100 Avant Duo) experimental vehicle, a plug-in parallel hybrid based on the Audi 100 Avant quattro. This car had a 9.4 kilowatts (12.8 PS; 12.6 bhp) Siemens electric motor which drove the rear roadwheels. A trunk-mounted nickel-cadmium battery supplied energy to the motor that drove the rear wheels. The vehicle's front roadwheels were powered by a 2.3 litre five-cylinder petrol engine with an output of 100 kilowatts (136 PS; 134 bhp). The intent was to produce a vehicle which could operate on the engine in the country, and electric mode in the city. Mode of operation could be selected by the driver. Just ten vehicles are believed to have been made; one drawback was that due to the extra weight of the electric drive, the vehicles were less efficient when running on their engines alone than standard Audi 100s with the same engine.
Two years later, Audi, unveiled the second duo generation, the Audi 100 Duo - likewise based on the Audi 100 Avant quattro. Once again, this featured an electric motor, a 21.3 kilowatts (29.0 PS; 28.6 bhp) three-phase machine, driving the rear roadwheels. This time, however, the rear wheels were additionally powered via the Torsen centre differentialfrom the main engine compartment, which housed a 2.0 litre four-cylinder engine.[citation needed]
In 1992, Volvo ECC was developed by Volvo. The Volvo ECC was built on the Volvo 850 platform. In contrast to most production hybrids, which use a gasoline piston engine to provide additional acceleration and to recharge the battery storage, the Volvo ECC used a gas turbine engine to drive the generator for recharging.
The Clinton administration initiated the Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles (PNGV) program on 29 September 1993, that involved Chrysler, Ford, General Motors,USCAR, the DoE, and other various governmental agencies to engineer the next efficient and clean vehicle.[50] The United States National Research Council (USNRC) citedautomakers' moves to produce HEVs as evidence that technologies developed under PNGV were being rapidly adopted on production lines, as called for under Goal 2. Based on information received from automakers, NRC reviewers questioned whether the "Big Three" would be able to move from the concept phase to cost effective, pre-productionprototype vehicles by 2004, as set out in Goal 3.[51] The program was replaced by the hydrogen-focused FreedomCAR initiative by the George W. Bush administration in 2001,[52]an initiative to fund research too risky for the private sector to engage in, with the long-term goal of developing effectively carbon emission- and petroleum-free vehicles.
1998 saw the Esparante GTR-Q9 became the first Petrol-Electric Hybrid to race at Le Mans, although the car failed to qualify for the main event. The car managed to finished second in class at Petit Le Mans the same year.
Modern hybrids[edit]
See also: List of hybrid vehicles
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Automotive hybrid technology became widespread beginning in the late 1990s. The first mass-produced hybrid vehicle was the Toyota Prius, launched in Japan in 1997, and followed by the Honda Insight, launched in 1999 in the United States and Japan.[4] The Prius was launched in Europe, North America and the rest of the world in 2000.[54] The first-generation Prius sedan has an estimated fuel economyof 52 miles per US gallon (4.5 L/100 km; 62 mpg-imp) in the city and 45 miles per US gallon (5.2 L/100 km; 54 mpg-imp) in highway driving. The two-door first-generation Insight was estimated at 61 miles per US gallon (3.9 L/100 km; 73 mpg-imp) miles per gallon in city driving and 68 miles per US gallon (3.5 L/100 km; 82 mpg-imp) on the highway.[4]
The Toyota Prius sold 300 units in 1997 and 19,500 in 2000, and cumulative worldwide Prius sales reached the one million mark in April 2008.[54] By early 2010, the Prius global cumulative sales were estimated at 1.6 million units.[55][56] Toyota launched a second-generation Prius in 2004 and a third in 2009.[57] The 2010 Prius has an estimated U.S. Environmental Protection Agency combined fuel economy cycle of 50 miles per US gallon (4.7 L/100 km; 60 mpg-imp).[57]
The Audi Duo III was introduced in 1997, based on the Audi B5 A4 Avant, and was the only Duo to ever make it into series production.[2]The Duo III used the 1.9-litre Turbocharged Direct Injection (TDI) diesel engine, which was coupled with a 21 kilowatts (29 PS; 28 bhp) electric motor. Due to low demand for it because of its high price,[clarification needed] only about sixty Audi Duos were produced. Until the release of the Audi Q7 Hybrid in 2008, the Duo was the only European hybrid ever put into production.[2][58]
The Honda Civic Hybrid was introduced in February 2002 as a 2003 model, based on the seventh-generation Civic.[59] The 2003 Civic Hybrid appears identical to the non-hybrid version, but delivers 50 miles per US gallon (4.7 L/100 km; 60 mpg-imp), a 40 percent increase compared to a conventional Civic LX sedan.[59] Along with the conventional Civic, it received a styling update for 2004. The redesigned 2004 Toyota Prius (second generation) improved passenger room, cargo area, and power output, while increasing energy efficiency and reducing emissions. The Honda Insight first generation stopped being produced after 2006 and has a devoted base of owners. A second-generation Insight was launched in 2010. In 2004, Honda also released a hybrid version of the Accord but discontinued it in 2007, citing disappointing sales.[60]
The Ford Escape Hybrid, the first hybrid electric sport utility vehicle (SUV), was released in 2005. Toyota and Ford entered into a licensing agreement in March 2004 allowing Ford to use 20 patents[citation needed] from Toyota related to hybrid technology, although Ford's engine was independently designed and built.[citation needed] In exchange for the hybrid licenses, Ford licensed patents involving their European diesel engines to Toyota.[citation needed] Toyota announced calendar year 2005 hybrid electric versions of the Toyota Highlander Hybrid andLexus RX 400h with 4WD-i, which uses a rear electric motor to power the rear wheels, negating the need for a transfer case.
In 2006, General Motors Saturn Division began to market a mild parallel hybrid, the 2007 Saturn Vue Green Line, which utilized GM's Belted Alternator/Starter (BAS Hybrid) system combined with a 2.4-litre L4 engine and an FWD automatic transmission. The same hybrid powertrain was also used to power the 2008 Saturn Aura Greenline and Malibu Hybrid models. As of December 2009, only the BAS-equipped Malibu is still in (limited) production.
In 2007, Lexus released a hybrid electric version of their GS sport sedan, the GS 450h, with a power output of 335 bhp.[61] The 2007Camry Hybrid became available in summer 2006 in the United States and Canada. Nissan launched the Altima Hybrid with technology licensed by Toyota in 2007.[62]
Commencing in fall 2007, General Motors began to market their 2008 Two-Mode Hybrid models of their GMT900-based Chevrolet Tahoeand GMC Yukon SUVs, closely followed by the 2009 Cadillac Escalade Hybrid[63] version.[64] For the 2009 model year, General Motors released the same technology in their half-ton pickup truck models, the 2009 Chevrolet Silverado[65] and GMC Sierra[66] Two-Mode Hybrid models.
The Ford Fusion Hybrid officially debuted at the Greater Los Angeles Auto Show in November 2008,[67] and was launched to the U.S. market in March 2009, together with the second-generation Honda Insight and the Mercury Milan Hybrid.[53]
Latest developments[edit]
- 2009–2010
The Hyundai Elantra LPI Hybrid was unveiled at the 2009 Seoul Motor Show, and sales began in the South Korean domestic market in July 2009. The Elantra LPI (Liquefied Petroleum Injected) is the world's first hybrid vehicle to be powered by an internal combustion engine built to run on liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) as a fuel. The Elantra PLI is a mild hybrid and the first hybrid to adopt advancedlithium polymer (Li–Poly) batteries.[69][70] The Elantra LPI Hybrid delivers a fuel economy rating of 41.9 miles per US gallon (5.61 L/100 km; 50.3 mpg-imp) and CO2 emissions of 99 g/km to qualify as a Super Ultra Low Emission Vehicle (SULEV).[69]
The Mercedes-Benz S400 BlueHybrid was unveiled in the 2009 Chicago Auto Show,[71] and sales began in the U.S. in October 2009.[72][73]The S400 BlueHybrid is a mild hybrid and the first hybrid car to adopt a lithium ion battery.[71][74] The hybrid technology in the S400 was co-developed by Daimler AG and BMW.[27][71] The same hybrid technology is being used in the BMW ActiveHybrid 7, expected to go on sales in the U.S. and Europe by mid-2010.[75] In December 2009 BMW began sales of its full hybrid BMW ActiveHybrid X6, while Daimler launched the Mercedes-Benz ML450 Hybrid by lease only.[76][77]
Sales of the Honda CR-Z began in Japan in February 2010, followed by the U.S. and European markets later in the year, becoming Honda's third hybrid electric car in the market.[68][79] Honda also launched the 2011 Honda Fit Hybrid in Japan in October 2010, and unveiled the European version, the Honda Jazz Hybrid, at the 2010 Paris Motor Show, which went on sale in some European markets by early 2011.[80]
Mass production of the 2011 Toyota Auris Hybrid began in May 2010 at Toyota Manufacturing UK (TMUK) Burnaston plant and became the first mass-produced hybrid vehicle to be built in Europe.[78] Sales in the UK began in July 2010, at a price starting at£18,950(US$27,450), £550 (US$800) less than the Toyota Prius.[81][82] The 2011 Auris Hybrid shares the same powertrain as the Prius, and combined fuel economy is 74.3 mpg-imp (3.80 L/100 km; 61.9 mpg-US).[83][84]
The 2011 Lincoln MKZ Hybrid was unveiled at the 2010 New York International Auto Show[85] and sales began in the U.S. in September 2010.[86] The MKZ Hybrid is the first hybrid version ever to have the same price as the gasoline-engine version of the same car.[87] ThePorshe Cayenne Hybrid was launched in the U.S in late 2010.[33]
- 2011–2015
Volkswagen announced at the 2010 Geneva Motor Show the launch of the 2012 Touareg Hybrid, which went on sale on the U.S. in 2011.[88][89] VW also announced plans to introduce diesel-electric hybrid versions of its most popular models in 2012, beginning with the new Jetta, followed by the Golf Hybrid in 2013 together with hybrid versions of the Passat.[90][91] Other gasoline-electric hybrids released in the U.S. in 2011 were the Lexus CT 200h, the Infiniti M35 Hybrid, the Hyundai Sonata Hybrid and its siblling the Kia Optima Hybrid.[92][93]
The Peugeot 3008 HYbrid4 was launched in the European market in 2012, becoming the world's first production diesel-electric hybrid. According to Peugeot the new hybrid delivers a fuel economy of up to 62 miles per US gallon (3.8 L/100 km; 74 mpg-imp) and CO2emissions of 99g/km on the European test cycle.[94][95]
The Toyota Prius v, launched in the U.S. in October 2011, is the first spinoff from the Prius family. Sales in Japan began in May 2011 as the Prius Alpha. The European version, named Prius +, was launched in June 2012.[96] The Prius Aqua was launched in Japan in December 2011, and was released as the Toyota Prius c in the U.S. in March 2012.[97] The Prius c was launched in Australia in April 2012.[98] The production version of the 2012 Toyota Yaris Hybrid went on sale in Europe in June 2012.[99]
Other hybrids released in the U.S. during 2012 are the Audi Q5 Hybrid, BMW 5 Series ActiveHybrid, BMW 3 series Hybrid, Ford C-Max Hybrid, Acura ILX Hybrid. Also during 2012 were released the next generation of Toyota Camry Hybrid and the Ford Fusion Hybrid, both of which offer significantly improved fuel economy in comparison with their previous generations.[100][101][102] The 2013 models of theToyota Avalon Hybrid and the Volkswagen Jetta Hybrid were released in the U.S. in December 2012.[12]
Global sales of the Toyota Prius liftback passed the 3 million milestone in June 2013. The Prius liftbak is available in almost 80 countries and regions, and it is the world's best selling hybrid electric vehicle.[1] Toyota released the hybrid versions of the Corolla Axio sedan andCorolla Fielder station wagon in Japan in August 2013. Both cars are equipped with a 1.5-liter hybrid system similar to the one used in the Prius c.[103]
.JPG)
Sales of the Honda Vezel Hybrid SUV began in Japan began in December 2013.[104] The Range Rover Hybrid diesel-powered electric hybrid was unveiled at the 2013 Frankfurt Motor Show, and retail deliveries in Europe are slated to start in early 2014.[105] Ford Motor Company, the world's second largest manufacturer of hybrids after Toyota Motor Corporation, reached the milestone of 400,000 hybrid electric vehicles produced in November 2014.[106] After 18 years since the introduction of hybrid cars, Japan became in 2014 the first country to reach sales of over 1 million hybrid cars in a single year, and also the Japanese market surpassed the United States as the world's largest hybrid market.[18][107]
The redesigned and more efficiente fourth generation Prius was released for retail customers in Japan in December 2015. The launch in North American market is scheduled for January 2016, and February in Europe.[108] The 2016 model year Prius Eco surpassed the 2000first generation Honda Insight as the all-time EPA-rated most fuel efficient gasoline-powered car available in the U.S. without plug-in capability.[109][110][111]
Sales and rankings[edit]
As of December 2014, Japan and the United States are the world's market leaders in hybrid sales, Japan with over 4 million units sold and the U.S. with more than 3.5 million.[14][18][19] Cumulative European sales totaled over 925,000 hybrids through December 2014.[112][113][114] As of August 2014, more than 130,000 hybrids have been sold in Canada, of which, over 100,000 are Toyota and Lexus models.[115] In addition, more than 370,000 Lexus and Toyota models have been sold in other regions of the world as of September 2014, of which, over 50,000 were sold in Australia by February 2014.[116][117]
As of July 2015, over 10 million hybrid electric vehicles have been sold worldwide since their inception in 1997, led by Toyota Motor Company (TMC) with over 8 million Lexus and Toyota hybrids sold as of July 2015;[7] followed by Honda Motor Co., Ltd. with cumulative global sales of more than 1.35 million hybrids as of June 2014;[8][9][10] Ford Motor Corporation with over 424 thousand hybrids sold in the United States through June 2015, of which, around 10% are plug-in hybrids;[11][12][13][14][15] Hyundai Group with cumulative global sales of 200 thousand hybrids as of March 2014, including both Hyundai Motors and Kia Motors hybrid models;[16] and PSA Peugeot Citroën with over 50,000 diesel-powered hybrids sold in Europe through December 2013.[114]
TMC experienced record sales of hybrid cars during 2013, with 1,279,400 units sold worldwide, and it took only nine months to achieved one million hybrid sales.[118][119] Again in 2014, TMC sold a record one million hybrids in nine months.[120] Toyota hybrids combined with Lexus models reached 1 million units in May 2007,[121] and the U.S. reached the 1 million mark of sales of both brands by February 2009.[122] Worldwide sales of TMC hybrids totaled over 2 million vehicles by August 2009,[121] 3 million units by February 2011,[123] 5 million in March 2013,[124] 7 million in September 2014,[120] and the 8 million mark in July 2015.[7]
_i-Tech_liftback_(2015-10-18).jpg)
Ford experienced record sales of its hybrids models in the U.S. during 2013, with almost 80,000 units sold, almost triple the 2012 total.[125]During the second quarter of 2013 Ford achieved its best hybrid sales quarter ever, up 517% over the same quarter of 2012.[126] In 2013 Toyota’s hybrid market share in the U.S. declined from 2012 totals due to new competition, particularly from Ford with the arrival of new products such as the C-Max Hybrid and the new styling of the Fusion. Except for the Prius c, sales of the other models of the Prius family and the Camry Hybrid suffered a decline from 2012, while the Fusion Hybrid experienced a 164.3% increased from 2012, and C-Max Hybrid sales climbed 156.6%.[13] During 2013 Ford increased its market share of the American hybrid market from 7.5% in 2012 to 14.7% in 2013.[13][127]
As of July 2015, global hybrid sales are led by the Prius family, with sales of 5.264 million units representing 65.4% of TMC worldwide sales of 8.048 million Lexus and Toyota units delivered through July 2015.[17] The Toyota Prius liftback is the leading model with cumulative sales of 3.527 million units through July 2015. Of these, 1.596 million were sold in North America, 1.553 million in Japan, 279,284 in Europe and 98,625 in the rest of the world.[17] Ranking second after the conventional Prius is the Toyota Aqua/Prius c, with global sales of 1,081,332 units, followed by the Prius v/α/+ with 582,379 units sold, the Camry Hybrid, with 528,217 units, and the Toyota Auris with 240,218 units.[17] U.S. sales of the Toyota Prius reached the 1.0 million milestone in early April 2011,[20] and cumulative sales of the Prius in Japan exceeded the 1 million mark in August 2011.[21] Global sales of Lexus brand hybrid vehicles worldwide reached the 500 thousand mark in November 2012.[128] As of July 2015, a total of 895,330 Lexus hybrids have been sold worldwide, with the Lexus RX 400h/RX 450h ranking as the top selling Lexus hybrid with 317,560 units, followed by the Lexus CT 200hwith 242,003 units.[17]
| Country | Number of registered hybrids by year | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2014 | 2013 | 2012 | 2011 | 2010 | 2009[129] | 2008[130] | 2007[131] | ||
 Japan | Over 1 million[18] | 679,100(1)[132] | 678,000(1)[133] | 316,300(1)[133] | 392,200(1)[133] | 334,000[134] | 94,259 | 69,015 | |
 United States | 452,152[14] | 495,771[14] | 434,498[12] | 268,752[135] | 274,210[136] | 290,271[136] | 312,386[136] | 352,274[136] | |
 France(2) | 42,813[137] | 46,785[138] | 27,730[139] | 13,340[140] | 9,443[141] | 9,399[142] | 9,137[142] | 7,268[143] | |
 United Kingdom | 37,215[144] | 29,129[144] | 24,900[145] | 23,391[146] | 22,127[147] | 14,645[148] | 15,385[148] | 15,971[148] | |
 Germany | 27,435[149] | 26,348[150] | 21,438[151] | 12,622[152] | 10,661[153] | 8,374[153] | 6,464[153] | 7,591[153] | |
 Netherlands | 10,341[154] | 18,356[155] | 19,519[156][157] | 14,874[158] | 16,111[159] | 16,122[160] | 11,837[160] | 3,013[160] | |
 Canada | Not available | ~15,000[161] | 14,595(1)[162] | Not available | 16,167(1) | 19,963[163] | 14,828 | ||
| World | Over 1.57 million | Over 1.31 million | Over 1.22 million | - | - | 740,000[164] | 511,758 | 500,405 | |
| Notes: (1) Partial sales, includes only Toyota/Lexus sales.[133] (2) Since 2011 French registrations include plug-in hybrids | |||||||||
Japanese market[edit]
Toyota's hybrid sales in Japan since 1997, including both Toyota and Lexus models, passed the 1 million mark in July 2010,[165] 2 million in October 2012,[166] and topped the 3 million mark in March 2014.[116] As of July 2015, TMC hybrid sales totaled 3,887,800 units.[17] Cumulative sales of the original Prius in Japan reached the 1 million mark in August 2011,[21] and sales of the Prius family vehicles totaled 2,878,084 units through July 2015.[17] The Prius liftback is the top selling model with 1,553,362 units, followed by the Aqua, with 901,465 units.[17] Cumulative sales of Honda's hybrid vehicles since November 1999 reached 25,239 units by January 2009,[113] and in March 2010, Honda announced that the new 2010 Insight broke through 100,000 sales in Japan in just one year after its introduction.[167]
Hybrid sales in Japan almost tripled in 2009 as compared to 2008 as a result of government incentives that included a scrappage program, tax breaks on hybrid vehicles and other low-emission cars and trucks, and a higher levy on gasoline that rose prices in the order of US$4.50.[55][164][168] New hybrid car sales jumped from 94,259 in 2008[130] to 334,000 in 2009,[134] and hybrid sales in 2009 represented around 10% of new vehicles sales in Japan. In contrast, the U.S. market share was 2.8% for the same year.[55] These record sales allowed Japan to surpass the U.S. in total new hybrid sales, with the Japanese market representing almost half (48%) of the worldwide hybrid sales in 2009 while the U.S. market represented 42% of global sales.[134] The Toyota Prius became the first hybrid to top annual new car sales in Japan with 208,876 units sold in 2009.[55][169] The Insight ranked fifth in overall sales in 2009 with 93,283 units sold.[55]
A total of 315,669 Priuses were sold domestically in 2010, making the Prius the country's best-selling vehicle for the second straight year. Also the Prius broke Japan's annual sales record for a single model for the first time in 20 years, surpassing the Toyota Corolla, which in 1990 set the previous sales record with 300,008 units.[170] The Prius sold 252,528 units in 2011, becoming the best-selling vehicle for the third-consecutive year. This figure includes sales of the Prius α, launched in May 2011, and the Toyota Aqua, launched in December. Despite keeping to the top selling spot, total Prius sales for 2011 were 20% lower than 2010 due partly to the disruptions caused by the March 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, and also because government incentives for hybrid cars were scaled back.[171][172] Nevertheless, during the 2011 Japanese fiscal year (April 1, 2011 through March 31, 2012), hybrid vehicles accounted for 16% of all new car sales in the country.[173]In May 2012, hybrid sales reached a record market share of 19.7% of new car sales in the country, including kei cars. Sales were led by the conventional Prius followed by the Toyota Aqua. Also during this month, hybrid sales represented 25% of Honda sales and 46% of Toyota sales in the country.[174]
The Toyota Aqua, released in December 2011, ranked as the second top selling new car in Japan in 2012 after the conventional Prius.[175]Totaling 262,367 units sold in 2013, the Aqua topped new car sales in Japan in 2013, including kei car sales.[176] And with 233,209 units sold during 2014, down 11.1% from 2013, the Aqua was the top selling new car in Japan for the second consecutive year.[177] The Toyota Aqua is considered the most successful nameplate launch in the Japanese market of the last 20 years.[178] After 18 years since their introduction in the Japanese market, annual hybrid sales surpassed the 1 million mark for the first time in 2014. With cumulative sales of over 4 million hybrids through December 2014, Japan surpassed the United States as the world's largest hybrid market.[18][107] It was also the first time that all eight major Japanese manufacturers offered hybrid vehicles in their lineup.[107]
Japan also has the world's highest hybrid market penetration. The hybrid market share of new car sales began to increase significantly in 2009, when the government implemented aggressive fiscal incentives for fuel efficient vehicles and the third generation Prius was introduced. That year, the hybrid market share of new car sales in the country, including kei cars, jumped from less than 5% in 2008 to over 10% in 2009. If only conventional passenger cars are accounted for, the hybrid market share was about 15%. By 2013 the hybrid market share accounted for more than 30% of the 2.9 million standard passenger vehicles sold, and about 20% of the 4.5 million passenger vehicles including kei cars.[22]
U.S. market[edit]
Further information: Hybrid electric vehicles in the United States
The market of hybrid electric vehicles in the United States is the second largest in the world after Japan.[18] Cumulative sales passed 2 million units in May 2011[179] and the 3 million mark in October 2013.[19] Since their inception in 1999, a total of 3,540,199 hybrid electric automobiles and SUVs have been sold in the country through December 2014.[12][13][14][135][136] TheToyota Prius family is the market leader with 1,731,717 units sold through December 2014, representing a 48.9% market shareof total hybrid sales in the U.S.[12][13][14][135][136] Out of the 7.053 million hybrids sold by Toyota Motor Company worldwide through September 2014, the United States accounted for 34.9% of TMC global hybrid sales.[116]
A total of 434,498 hybrid electric vehicles were sold during 2012, and the hybrid market share of total new car sales in the country was 3.0%, up from 2.1% in 2011.[12] During 2013 hybrid sales totaled 495,685 units, up 14.1% from 2012, and representing a market share of 3.19% of new car sales.[13] Hybrid sales totaled 452,152 units in 2014, down 8.8% from the previous year. The hybrid market share fell to 2.75% of new car sales, the lowest since 2011. The best selling Prius Liftback was down 15.4% from 2013, driving the decline of the segment sales.[14] The top five selling hybrids in 2014 were the conventional Prius (122,776), Prius c (40,570), second generation Camry Hybrid (39,515), second generation Fusion Hybrid (35,405), and the Prius v (30,762), all down from the previous year.[14] Combined Prius family vehicles reached 194,108 units representing a market share of 42.9%, down from 44.8% the previous year.[13][14]
California has been the state leading hybrid sales in the U.S. with 55,553 vehicles sold in 2009,[129] 74,932 in 2008,[130] and 91,417 in 2007.[131] In 2009 it was followed by New York (15,438) and Florida (14,949).[129] In terms of new hybrids sold per capita, theDistrict of Columbia was the leader in 2009 with 3.79 hybrids per 1000 residents, followed by California (1.54) and Washington (1.53).[129] The top 5 U. S. metropolitan areamarkets for sales of hybrid electric vehicles in 2009 were Los Angeles (26,677), New York(21,193), San Francisco (15,799), Washington, D.C. (11,595), and Chicago (8,990).[129]
Considering hybrid sales between January 2010 through September 2011, the top selling metropolitan region was the San Francisco Bay Area, with 8.4% of all new cars sold during that period, followed by Monterey-Salinas with 6.9%, and Eugene, Oregon, with 6.1%. The following seven top selling markets are also on the West Coast, includingSeattle-Tacoma and Los Angeles with 5.7%, San Diego with 5.6%, and Portland with 5.4%. The Washington D.C. Metro Area, with 4.2%, is the next best selling region out of the West Coast.[180]
Sales of Prius family vehicles in California represented 26% of all Prius purchases in the U.S. during 2012. With 60,688 units sold during this year, the Prius became the best selling vehicle in California, ahead of the previous leader, the Honda Civic (57,124 units) and the third ranked, the Toyota Camry (50,250 units).[181] Again in 2013, the Priusnameplate was the best selling vehicle in California with 69,728 units sold in the state, ahead of the Honda Civic (66,982) and the Honda Accord (63,194).[182][183]
European market[edit]
Sales of hybrids in Europe went up from around 9,000 units in 2004 to 39,880 in 2006, with Toyota accounting for 91% of hybrid sales and Honda with 3,410 units sold that year. Cumulative sales of Toyota hybrids since 2000 reached 69,674 units in 2006, while Honda hybrid sales reached over 8,000 units.[184] By January 2009, Honda had sold 35,149 hybrids in Europe, of which 34,757 were Honda Civic Hybrids.[113] During 2008 combined sales of Toyota and Lexus hybrids in Europe were 57,819 units, representing 5.2% of total Toyota sales in the region. Toyota sales were led by Prius with 41,495 units.[185] Cumulative sales of the Toyota Prius reached 100,000 units in 2008 and the 200,000 mark was reached in July 2010. The UK has been one of the leading European markets for the Prius since its inception, with 20% of Prius sales in Europe by 2010.[186]
_%E2%80%93_Frontansicht,_18._Juni_2012,_D%C3%BCsseldorf.jpg)
Toyota's European hybrid sales reached 70,529 vehicles in 2010, including sales of 15,237 Toyota Auris Hybrids.[187] Sales reached 84,839 units in 2011, including 59,161 Toyota and 25,678 Lexus hybrid vehicles. The Auris hybrid sold 32,725 units in 2011. Lexus hybrids made up 85% of total sales in Western Europe in 2011. Toyota and Lexus hybrids represented 10% percent of Toyota's European new car sales in 2011.[188][189] TMC share of hybrid sales out of the company's total European sales climbed from 13% in 2012 to 20% during the first 11 months of 2013.[190]
Cumulative TMC sales since the Prius introduction in Europe in 2000 passed the one million unit milestone in November 2015,[191] with a record of 171,800 units sold in 2014.[7] As of July 2015, the top selling Toyota hybrids were the conventional Prius (279,284), Toyota Auris (231,096), and the Yaris Hybrid (172,154). The top selling Lexus models are the Lexus RX 400h/RX 450h with 93,540 units, and theLexus CT 200h with 57,101 units.[17] As of December 2012, hybrid vehicles accounted for about 1% of passenger car registrations in theEU Member States, led by the Netherlands with a market share of 4.5% of total passenger car sales in 2012.[23] During the first nine months of 2013, over 118,000 hybrids were sold in Western Europe representing a 1.4% market share of new car sales in the region.[192]
- UK
Since 2006 hybrid car registrations in the UK totaled 193,720 units up to December 2014, including 7,144 diesel-electric hybrids, which were introduced in 2011.[144][145][146][147][148] Since 2000, when the Prius was launched in the UK, 100,000 Toyota hybrids have been sold by May 2014, and almost 50,000 Lexus models since the introduction of the RX 400h in 2005.[193] Honda has sold in the UK more than 22,000 hybrid cars through December 2011 since the Insight was launched in the country in 2000.[194] A total of 37,215 hybrids were registered in 2014, and while petrol-electric hybrids increased 32.6% from 2013, diesel-electric hybrids declined 12.6%.[144] After 15 years since the launch of the Prius in the British market, combined sales of Toyota and Lexus hybrids reached the 200,000 unit milestone in November 2015.[195]
- France
A total of 165,915 hybrid cars have been registered in France between 2007 and 2014,[137][138][139][140][141][142][143] including 33,547 diesel-powered hybrids. French registrations account plug-in hybrid together with conventional hybrids.[137][138][140] Diesel hybrid technology, introduced by PSA Peugeot Citroën with the HYbrid4 system in 2011, represented 20.2% of the hybrid car stock sold in France between 2011 and 2014.[137][138][139][140] Among the 13,340 units registered in 2011, the top selling models in the French market were the Toyota Auris (4,740 units), the Prius (2,429 units), and the Honda Jazz Hybrid (1,857 units). The diesel-powered Peugeot 3008 HYbrid4, launched in late 2011, sold 401 units.[140] Toyota led hybrid sales in the French market in 2013 with 27,536 registrations of its Yaris, Auris and Prius models, followed by the PSA group with 13,400 registrations.[138] During 2014, a total of 42,813 hybrid cars and vans were registered, down 8.5% from 2013. Of these, 9,518 were diesel-electric hybrids, down 31.9% from 13,986 units a year earlier, while registrations of gasoline-electric hybrids were up 1.5%.[137] The top selling models in 2014 were the Toyota Yaris Hybrid with 12,819 units,Toyota Auris with 10,595 and the Peugeot 3008 with 4,189 units.[137] Hybrid registrations in 2014 included 1,519 plug-in hybrids, with sales led by the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV, with 820 units.[137][196]
- The Netherlands
As of December 2014, hybrid car registrations totaled 117,259 units, up 9.7% from 106,918 a year earlier. During 2014 more plug-in hybrids were registered (12,425) in the country than conventional hybrids (10,341).[154] By the end of 2009 there were about 39,300 hybrid cars registered in the Netherlands, up from 23,000 the previous year. Most of the registered hybrid cars belonged to corporate fleets due to tax incentives established in the country in 2008.[197][198] As a result of the tax incentives, the country has the highest hybrid market share among EU Member States. Hybrid sales climbed from 0.7% in 2006 and 2007 to 2.4% in 2008, and 4.2% in 2009. Due to the financial crisis of 2007–08, the market fell for two years to 2.7% in 2011, but recovered to 4.5% in 2012.[23] Japan is the only country with a higher market share than the Netherlands.[22] During the first eight months of 2013, around 65% of TMC cars sold in the Netherlands have been hybrids, with the technology particularly popular among fleet owners and taxi drivers.[199]
- Germany
As of January 2015, there were about 113,000 hybrid cars registered in Germany,[149][200] up from 85,575 on January 1, 2014,[200] and 47,642 vehicles on January 1, 2012.[201]Hybrid registrations during 2014 totaled 27,345 units, up 4.1% from 26,348 in 2013.[149][150]
- Spain
A total of 10,350 hybrid cars were registered in Spain in 2011, up 22% from 2010 sales. The top selling hybrids were the Toyota Prius, Toyota Auris HSD and the Lexus CT 200h, which together represented 83,2% of new hybrid car sales in the country.[202] During 2012 hybrid sales remained almost constant with 10,030 units sold, representing 1.44% of new passenger cars sales that year. The top selling car was the Prius with 3,969 units, followed by the Auris HSD (2,234) and the Lexus CT 200h (1,244). Combined sales of Toyota and Lexus models represented 89.15% of hybrid sales in the Spanish market in 2012.[203] Hybrid sales in 2013 increased 1.72% from 2012, with 10,294 units registered. The Toyota Auris HSD was the top selling hybrid with 3.644 units, followed by the Prius (2.378) and the Yaris Hybrid (1.587 ).[204]
Technology[edit]
The varieties of hybrid electric designs can be differentiated by the structure of the hybrid vehicle drivetrain, the fuel type, and the mode of operation.
In 2007, several automobile manufacturers announced that future vehicles will use aspects of hybrid electric technology to reduce fuel consumption without the use of the hybrid drivetrain. Regenerative braking can be used to recapture energy and stored to power electrical accessories, such as air conditioning. Shutting down the engine at idle can also be used to reduce fuel consumption and reduce emissions without the addition of a hybrid drivetrain. In both cases, some of the advantages of hybrid electric technology are gained while additional cost and weight may be limited to the addition of larger batteries and starter motors. There is no standard terminology for such vehicles, although they may be termed mild hybrids.
Engines and fuel sources[edit]
Fossil fuels[edit]
Main article: Fossil fuel
Free-piston engines could be used to generate electricity as efficiently as, and less expensively than, fuel cells.[205]
- Gasoline
Gasoline engines are used in most hybrid electric designs and will likely remain dominant for the foreseeable future.[citation needed] While petroleum-derived gasoline is the primary fuel, it is possible to mix in varying levels of ethanol created from renewable energy sources. Like most modern ICE powered vehicles, HEVs can typically use up to about 15%bioethanol. Manufacturers may move to flexible fuel engines, which would increase allowable ratios, but no plans are in place at present.
- Diesel
Diesel-electric HEVs use a diesel engine for power generation. Diesels have advantages when delivering constant power for long periods of time, suffering less wear while operating at higher efficiency.[citation needed] The diesel engine's high torque, combined with hybrid technology, may offer substantially improved mileage. Most diesel vehicles can use 100% pure biofuels (biodiesel), so they can use but do not need petroleum at all for fuel (although mixes of biofuel and petroleum are more common).[citation needed] If diesel-electric HEVs were in use, this benefit would likely also apply. Diesel-electric hybrid drivetrains have begun to appear in commercial vehicles (particularly buses); as of 2007, no light duty diesel-electric hybrid passenger cars are currently available, although prototypes exist. Peugeot is expected to produce a diesel-electric hybrid version of its 308 in late 2008 for the European market.[206]
PSA Peugeot Citroën has unveiled two demonstrator vehicles featuring a diesel-electric hybrid drivetrain: the Peugeot 307, Citroën C4 Hybride HDi and Citroën C-Cactus.[207]Volkswagen made a prototype diesel-electric hybrid car that achieved 2 L/100 km (140 mpg-imp; 120 mpg-US) fuel economy, but has yet to sell a hybrid vehicle. General Motorshas been testing the Opel Astra Diesel Hybrid. There have been no concrete dates suggested for these vehicles, but press statements have suggested production vehicles would not appear before 2009.
At the Frankfurt Motor Show in September 2009 both Mercedes and BMW displayed diesel-electric hybrids.[208]
Robert Bosch GmbH is supplying hybrid diesel-electric technology to diverse automakers and models, including the Peugeot 308.[209]
So far, production diesel-electric engines have mostly[vague] appeared in mass transit buses.[citation needed]
FedEx, along with Eaton Corp. in the USA and Iveco in Europe, has begun deploying a small fleet of Hybrid diesel electric delivery trucks.[210] As of October 2007, Fedex operates more than 100 diesel electric hybrids in North America, Asia and Europe.[211]
- Liquefied petroleum gas
Hyundai introduced in 2009 the Hyundai Elantra LPI Hybrid, which is the first mass production hybrid electric vehicle to run on liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).[69]
- Hydrogen
Hydrogen can be used in cars in two ways: a source of combustible heat, or a source of electrons for an electric motor. The burning of hydrogen is not being developed in practical terms; it is the hydrogen fuel-cell electric vehicle (HFEV) which is garnering all the attention.Hydrogen fuel cells create electricity fed into an electric motor to drives the wheels. Hydrogen is not burned, but it is consumed. This means molecular hydrogen, H2, is combined with oxygen to form water. 2H2 (4e−) + O2 --> 2H2O (4e−). The molecular hydrogen and oxygen's mutual affinity drives the fuel cell to separate the electrons from the hydrogen, to use them to power the electric motor, and to return them to the ionized water molecules that were formed when the electron-depleted hydrogen combined with the oxygen in the fuel cell. Recalling that a hydrogen atom is nothing more than a proton and an electron; in essence, the motor is driven by the proton's atomic attraction to the oxygen nucleus, and the electron's attraction to the ionized water molecule.
An HFEV is an all-electric car featuring an open-source battery in the form of a hydrogen tank and the atmosphere. HFEVs may also comprise closed-cell batteries for the purpose of power storage from regenerative braking, but this does not change the source of the motivation. It implies the HFEV is an electric car with two types of batteries. Since HFEVs are purely electric, and do not contain any type of heat engine, they are not hybrids.
Biofuels[edit]
Main articles: biofuel and flexifuel vehicle
Hybrid vehicles might use an internal combustion engine running on biofuels, such as a flexible-fuel engine running on ethanol or engines running on biodiesel. In 2007 Ford produced 20 demonstration Escape Hybrid E85s for real-world testing in fleets in the U.S.[212][213] Also as a demonstration project, Ford delivered in 2008 the first flexible-fuel plug-in hybrid SUV to the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), aFord Escape Plug-in Hybrid, capable of running on gasoline or E85.[214]
The Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid electric vehicle would be the first commercially available flex-fuel plug-in hybrid capable of adapting the propulsion to the biofuels used in several world markets such as the ethanol blend E85 in the U.S., or E100 in Brazil, or biodiesel inSweden.[215][216] The Volt will be E85 flex-fuel capable about a year after its introduction.[217][218]
Electric machines[edit]
In split path vehicles (Toyota, Ford, GM, Chrysler) there are two electrical machines, one of which functions as a motor primarily, and the other functions as a generator primarily. One of the primary requirements of these machines is that they are very efficient, as the electrical portion of the energy must be converted from the engine to the generator, through two inverters, through the motor again and then to the wheels.
Most of the electric machines used in hybrid vehicles are brushless DC motors (BLDC). Specifically, they are of a type called an interior permanent magnet (IPM) machine (or motor). These machines are wound similarly to the induction motors found in a typical home, but (for high efficiency) use very strong rare earth magnets in the rotor. These magnets contain neodymium, iron and boron, and are therefore called Neodymium magnets.
The price of Neodymium went through a price bubble due to Chinese export restriction in 2010–11, rising from $50/kg at the start of 2010 to $500/kg by the summer of 2011. This resulted in 'demand destruction' as many producers quickly turned to substituting induction motors in their cars to defend their production line. This was in spite of such motors inferior 'power to weight' ratio attributes significantly impacting all but the most powerful (energy guzzling) motor sizes, e.g. those used in the Tesla. As of April 2014 there are other non-Chinese producers of Neodymium and its price/kg is not much more than it was in 2010. Cutting edge U.K. motors that are now being produced are using Neodymium Permanent Magnet technology. As security of supply returns, it is certain that there will accordingly be a return to superior motor designs that NdFeB Permanent Magnets enable.[citation needed]
Design considerations[edit]
In some cases, manufacturers are producing HEVs that use the added energy provided by the hybrid systems to give vehicles a power boost, rather than significantly improved fuel efficiency compared to their traditional counterparts.[219] The trade-off between added performance and improved fuel efficiency is partly controlled by the software within the hybrid system and partly the result of the engine, battery and motor size. In the future, manufacturers may provide HEV owners with the ability to partially control this balance (fuel efficiency vs. added performance) as they wish, through a user-controlled setting.[220] Toyota announced in January, 2006 that it was considering a "high-efficiency" button.[citation needed]
Conversion kits[edit]
Main article: Electric vehicle conversion
One can buy a stock hybrid or convert a stock petroleum car to a hybrid electric vehicle using an aftermarket hybrid kit.[221]
Environmental impact[edit]
For more details on this topic, see Hybrid vehicle § Environmental issues.
Fuel consumption[edit]
Main article: Fuel efficiency
For more details on this topic, see Hybrid vehicle § Fuel consumption and emissions reductions.
Current HEVs reduce petroleum consumption under certain circumstances, compared to otherwise similar conventional vehicles, primarily by using three mechanisms:[222]
- Reducing wasted energy during idle/low output, generally by turning the ICE off
- Recapturing waste energy (i.e. regenerative braking)
- Reducing the size and power of the ICE, and hence inefficiencies from under-utilization, by using the added power from the electric motor to compensate for the loss in peak power output from the smaller ICE.
Any combination of these three primary hybrid advantages may be used in different vehicles to realize different fuel usage, power, emissions, weight and cost profiles. The ICE in an HEV can be smaller, lighter, and more efficient than the one in a conventional vehicle, because the combustion engine can be sized for slightly above average power demand rather than peak power demand. The drive system in a vehicle is required to operate over a range of speed and power, but an ICE's highest efficiency is in a narrow range of operation, making conventional vehicles inefficient. On the contrary, in most HEV designs, the ICE operates closer to its range of highest efficiency more frequently. The power curve of electric motors is better suited to variable speeds and can provide substantially greater torque at low speeds compared with internal-combustion engines. The greaterfuel economy of HEVs has implication for reduced petroleum consumption and vehicle air pollution emissions worldwide[223]
Many hybrids use the Atkinson cycle, which gives greater efficiency, but less power for the size of engine.
Noise[edit]
See also: Electric vehicle warning sounds
Reduced noise emissions resulting from substantial use of the electric motor at idling and low speeds, leading to roadway noise reduction,[224] in comparison to conventional gasoline or diesel powered engine vehicles, resulting in beneficial noise health effects (although road noise from tires and wind, the loudest noises at highway speeds from the interior of most vehicles, are not affected by the hybrid design alone). Reduced noise may not be beneficial for all road users, as blind people or the visually impaired consider the noise of combustion engines a helpful aid while crossing streets and feel quiet hybrids could pose an unexpected hazard.[225] Tests have shown that vehicles operating in electric mode can be particularly hard to hear below 20 mph (32 km/h).[226][227]
A 2009 study conducted by the NHTSA found that crashes involving pedestrian and bicyclist have higher incidence rates for hybrids than internal combustion engine vehicles in certain vehicle maneuvers. These accidents commonly occurred on in zones with low speed limits, during daytime and in clear weather.[228]
In January 2010 the Japanese Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism issued guidelines for hybrid and other near-silent vehicles.[229] The Pedestrian Safety Enhancement Act of 2010 was approved by the U.S. Congress in December 2010,[230][231][232] and the bill was signed into law by President Barack Obama on January 4, 2011.[233] A proposed rule was published for comment by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) in January, 2013. It would require hybrids and electric vehicles traveling at less than 18.6 miles per hour (30 km/h) to emit warning sounds that pedestrians must be able to hear over background noises.[234][235] The rules are scheduled to go into effect in September 2014.[235][236] In April 2014 the European Parliament approved legislation that requires the mandatory use of Acoustic Vehicle Alerting Systems (AVAS) for all new electric and hybrid electric vehicles, and car manufacturers have to comply within 5 years.[237][238]
As of mid-2010, and in advance of upcoming legislation, some carmakers announced their decision to address this safety issue shared by regular hybrids and all types of plug-in electric vehicles, and as a result, the Nissan Leaf and Chevrolet Volt, both launched in late 2010, and the Nissan Fuga hybrid and the Fisker Karma plug-in hybrid, both launched in 2011, include synthesized sounds to alert pedestrians, the blind and others to their presence.[239][240][241][242] Toyota introduced its Vehicle Proximity Notification System (VPNS) in the United States in all 2012 model year Prius family vehicles, including the Prius v, Prius Plug-in Hybrid and the standard Prius.[243][244]
There is also aftermarket technology available in California to make hybrids sound more like conventional combustion engine cars when the vehicle goes into the silent electric mode (EV mode).[245] On August 2010 Toyota began sales in Japan of an onboard device designed to automatically emit a synthesized sound of an electric motor when the Priusis operating as an electric vehicle at speeds up to approximately 25 kilometres per hour (16 mph). Toyota plans to use other versions of the device for use in gasoline-electric hybrids, plug-in hybrids, electric vehicles as well as fuel-cell hybrid vehicles planned for mass production.[229]
Pollution[edit]
See also: Hybrid Scorecard
Battery toxicity is a concern, although today's hybrids use NiMH batteries, not the environmentally problematic rechargeable nickel cadmium. "Nickel metal hydride batteries are benign. They can be fully recycled," says Ron Cogan, editor of the Green Car Journal.[this quote needs a citation] Toyota and Honda say that they will recycle dead batteries and that disposal will pose no toxic hazards. Toyota puts a phone number on each battery, and they pay a $200 "bounty" for each battery to help ensure that it will be properly recycled.
Top ten EPA-rated hybrids[edit]
The following table shows the fuel economy ratings and pollution indicators for the top ten most fuel efficient hybrids rated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (as of December 2015 ) for model year 2013 thorugh 2016 available in the American market.
among EPA's top ten 2013/16 model year most fuel efficient hybrid models available in the U.S. market[246][247]
| Vehicle | Year model | EPA Combined mileage (mpg) | EPA City (mpg) | EPA Highway (mpg) | Annual fuel cost (1) (USD) | Tailpipe emissions (grams per mile CO2) | EPA Air Pollution Score(2) | Annual Petroleum Use (barrel) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Toyota Prius Eco | 2016 | 56 | 58 | 53 | US$550 | 158 | NA | 5.9 |
| Toyota Prius (4th gen) | 2016 | 52 | 54 | 50 | US$600 | 170 | NA | 6.3 |
| Toyota Prius c | 2013/16 | 50 | 53 | 46 | US$600 | 178 | 7/8* | 6.6 |
| Toyota Prius (3rd gen) | 2013/15 | 50 | 51 | 48 | US$600 | 179 | 7/9* | 6.6 |
| Honda Accord (2nd gen) | 2014/15 | 47 | 50 | 45 | US$650 | 188 | 7/8* | 7.0 |
| Honda Civic Hybrid (3rd gen) | 2014/15 | 45 | 44 | 47 | US$700 | 196 | 7/9* | 7.3 |
| Volkswagen Jetta Hybrid | 2014/15 | 45 | 42 | 48 | US$850 | 200 | 7/9* | 7.3 |
| 2016 | 44 | 42 | 48 | 7.5 | ||||
| Ford Fusion (2nd gen) | 2013/16 | 42 | 44 | 41 | US$750 | 211 | 7/9* | 7.8 |
| Toyota Prius v | 2013/16 | 42 | 44 | 40 | US$750 | 211 | 7/8* | 7.8 |
| Lexus CT 200h | 2013/16 | 42 | 43 | 40 | US$750 | 212 | 7/8* | 7.8 |
| Source: U.S. Department of Energy and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency[246] Notes: (1) Estimates assumes 15,000 miles (24,000 km) per year (45% highway, 55% city) using average fuel price of US$2.04/gallon for regular gasoline and US$2.51/gallon for premium gasoline (national average as of 24 December 2015). (2) All states except California and Northeastern states, * otherwise.[246] | ||||||||
Vehicle types[edit]
Motorcycles[edit]
Companies such as Zero Motorcycles[248] and Vectrix have market-ready all-electric motorcycles available now, but the pairing of electrical components and an internal combustion engine (ICE) has made packaging cumbersome, especially for niche brands.[249]
Also, eCycle Inc produces series diesel-electric motorcycles, with a top speed of 80 mph (130 km/h) and a target retail price of $5500.[250]
Peugeot HYmotion3 compressor,[251][252] a hybrid scooter is a three-wheeler that uses two separate power sources to power the front and back wheels. The back wheel is powered by a single cylinder 125 cc, 20 bhp (15 kW) single cylinder motor while the front wheels are each driven by their own electric motor. When the bike is moving up to 10 km/h only the electric motors are used on a stop-start basis reducing the amount of carbon emissions.[253]
SEMA has announced that Yamaha is going to launch one in 2010, with Honda following a year later, fueling a competition to reign in new customers and set new standards for mobility. Each company hopes to provide the capability to reach 60 miles (97 km) per charge by adopting advanced lithium-ion batteries to accomplish their claims. These proposed hybrid motorcycles could incorporate components from the upcoming Honda Insight car and its hybrid powertrain. The ability to mass-produce these items helps to overcome the investment hurdles faced by start-up brands and bring new engineering concepts into mainstream markets.[249]
Automobiles and light trucks[edit]
See also: List of hybrid vehicles
High-performance cars[edit]
As emissions regulations become tougher for manufacturers to adhere to, a new generation of high-performance cars will be powered by hybrid technology (for example the Porsche GT3 hybrid racing car). Aside from the emissions benefits of a hybrid system, the immediately available torque which is produced from electric motor(s) can lead to performance benefits by addressing the power curve weaknesses of a traditional combustion engine.[254] Hybrid racecars have been very successful, as is shown by the Audi R18 and Porsche 919, which have won the 24 hours of Le Mans using hybrid technology.
Formula 1[edit]
In 2014, Formula 1 has changed the cars from 2.4L V8 engine to 1.6L turbocharged V6 engine, limited to 18,000 rpm. Turbocharged V6 engine speeds can go up to 360 km/h (223miles/h).
Taxis[edit]
See also: Hybrid taxi
In 2000 North America's first hybrid electric taxi was put into service in Vancouver, British Columbia, operating a 2001 Toyota Prius which traveled over 332,000 kilometres (206,000 mi) before being retired.[255][256] Many of the major cities in the world are adding hybrid taxis to their taxicab fleets, led by San Francisco and New York City.[257] By 2009 15% of New York's 13,237 taxis in service are hybrids, the most in any city in North America, and also began retiring its original hybrid fleet after 300,000 and 350,000 miles (480,000 and 560,000 km) per vehicle.[257][258] Other cities where taxi service is available with hybrid vehicles include Tokyo, London, Sydney,Melbourne, and Rome.[259]
Buses[edit]
Main article: Hybrid electric bus
Hybrid technology for buses has seen increased attention since recent battery developments decreased battery weight significantly. Drivetrains consist of conventional diesel engines and gas turbines. Some designs concentrate on using car engines, recent designs have focused on using conventional diesel engines already used in bus designs, to save on engineering and training costs. Several manufacturers are currently working on new hybrid designs, or hybrid drivetrains that fit into existing chassis offerings without major re-design. A challenge to hybrid buses may still come from cheaper lightweight imports from the former Eastern block countries or China, where national operators are looking at fuel consumption issues surrounding the weight of the bus, which has increased with recent bus technology innovations such as glazing, air conditioning and electrical systems. A hybrid bus can also deliver fuel economy though through the hybrid drivetrain. Hybrid technology is also being promoted by environmentally concerned transit authorities.
Trucks[edit]
Main article: Hybrid electric truck
In 2003, GM introduced a hybrid diesel-electric military (light) truck, equipped with a diesel electric and a fuel cell auxiliary power unit. Hybrid electric light trucks were introduced in 2004 by Mercedes Benz (Sprinter) and Micro-Vett SPA (Daily Bimodale). International Truck and Engine Corp. and Eaton Corp. have been selected to manufacture diesel-electric hybrid trucks for a US pilot program serving the utility industry in 2004. In mid-2005 Isuzu introduced the Elf Diesel Hybrid Truck on the Japanese Market. They claim that approximately 300 vehicles, mostly route buses are using Hinos HIMR (Hybrid Inverter Controlled Motor & Retarder) system. In 2007, high petroleum price means a hard sell for hybrid trucks[260] and appears the first U.S. production hybrid truck (International DuraStar Hybrid).[261]
Other vehicles are:
- Big mining machines like the Liebherr T 282B dump truck or Keaton Vandersteen LeTourneau L-2350 wheel loader are powered that way. Also there was several models of BelAZ (7530 and 7560 series) in USSR (now in Belarus) since the middle of 1970th.[262]
- NASA's huge Crawler-Transporters are diesel-electric.
- Mitsubishi Fuso Canter Eco Hybrid is a diesel-electric commercial truck.
- Azure Dynamics Balance Hybrid Electric is a gasoline-hybrid electric medium dutry truck based on the Ford E-450 chassis.
- Hino Motors (a Toyota subsidiary) has the world's first production hybrid electric truck in Australia (110 kW or 150 hp diesel engine plus a 23 kW or 31 hp electric motor).[263]
Other hybrid petroleum-electric truck makers are DAF Trucks, MAN AG with MAN TGL Series, Nissan Motors and Renault Trucks withRenault Puncher.
By a voice vote, the United States House of Representatives approved the Heavy Duty Hybrid Vehicle Research, Development, and Demonstration Act of 2009 ( for heavy dutyplug-in hybrid vehicles) authored by representative James Sensenbrenner.
Military vehicles[edit]
The United States Army's manned ground vehicles of the Future Combat System all use a hybrid electric drive consisting of a diesel engine to generate electrical power for mobility and all other vehicle subsystems. However, with the current 2010 DOD budget all FCS land vehicles have been put on hold. Other military hybrid prototypes include theMillenworks Light Utility Vehicle, the International FTTS, HEMTT model A3, and the Shadow RST-V.
Locomotives[edit]
Main article: Hybrid Locomotive
In May 2003, JR East started test runs with the so-called NE (new energy) train and validated the system's functionality (series hybrid with lithium-ion battery) in cold regions. In 2004, Railpower Technologies had been running pilots in the US with the so-called Green Goats,[264] which led to orders by the Union Pacific[265] and Canadian Pacific[266]Railways starting in early 2005.
Railpower offers hybrid electric road switchers,[267] as does GE.[268] Diesel-electric locomotives may not always be considered HEVs, not having energy storage on board, unless they are fed with electricity via a collector for short distances (for example, in tunnels with emission limits), in which case they are better classified as dual-mode vehicles.
Marine and other aquatic[edit]
Main article: Electric boat
For large boats that are already diesel-electric, the upgrade to hybrid can be as straightforward as adding a large battery bank and control equipment; this configuration can provide fuel saving for the operators as well as being more environmentally sensitive.[269]
Producers of marine hybrid propulsion include:
Aircraft[edit]
Boeing has stated that for the subsonic concept, hybrid electric engine technology is a clear winner. Hybrid electric propulsion has the potential to shorten takeoff distance and reduce noise.[271] The AgustaWestland Project Zero is one aircraft that is intended to be hybrid-electric.
The DA36 E-Star, an aircraft designed by Siemens, Diamond Aircraft and EADS, employs a series hybrid powertrain with the propeller being turned only by a Siemens 70 kW (94 hp) electric motor. The aim is to reduce fuel consumption and emissions by up to 25%. An onboard 40 hp (30 kW) Austro Engines Wankel rotary engine and generator provides the electricity because of the small size, light weight and high power-to-weight ratio of the engines. The electric motor also uses electricity stored in batteries to take off and climb reducing sound emissions by eliminating the engine. The series hybrid powertrain using the Wankel engine reduces the weight of the plane by 100 kilos to its predecessor. The DA36 E-Star first flew in June 2013, making this the first ever flight of a series hybrid powertrain. Diamond aircraft state that the technology using Wankel engines is scalable to a 100-seater aircraft.[272][273]
[edit]
| Vehicle type | Fuel used |
|---|---|
| All-petroleum vehicle | Most use of petroleum |
| Regular hybrid electric vehicle | Less use of petroleum, but non-pluginable |
| Plug-in hybrid vehicle | Residual use of petroleum. More use of electricity |
| All-electric vehicle | Most use of electricity |
HEVs can be initially more expensive (the so-called "hybrid premium") than pure fossil-fuel-based ICE vehicles, due to extra batteries, more electronics and in some cases other design considerations (although battery renting can be used to reach the cost parity). Thetrade-off between higher initial cost (also called showroom costs) and lower fuel costs (difference often referred to as the payback period) is dependent on usage - miles traveled, or hours of operation, fuel costs, and in some cases, government subsidies. Traditional economy vehicles may result in a lower direct cost for many users (before consideration of any externality).
Consumer Reports ran an article in April 2006 stating that HEVs would not pay for themselves over 5 years of ownership. However, this included an error with charging the "hybrid premium" twice.[274] When corrected, the Honda Civic Hybrid and Toyota Priusdid have a payback period of slightly less than 5 years.[275] This includes conservative estimates with depreciation (seen as more depreciation than a conventional vehicle, although that is not the current norm) and with progressively higher gas prices. In particular, the Consumer Reports article assumed $2/U.S. gallon for 3 years, $3/U.S. gallon for one year and $4/U.S. gallon the last year. As recent events have shown, this is a volatile market and hard to predict. For 2006, gas prices ranged from low $2 to low $3, averaging about $2.60/U.S. gallon.
A January 2007 analysis by Intellichoice.com shows that all 22 currently available HEVs will save their owners money over a five-year period. The most savings is for the Toyota Prius, which has a five-year cost of ownership 40.3% lower than the cost of comparable non-hybrid vehicles.[276]
A report in the Greeley Tribune says that over the five years it would typically take for a new car owner to pay off the vehicle cost differential, a hybrid Camry driver could save up to $6,700 in gasoline at current gasoline prices, with hybrid tax incentives as an additional saving.[277]
In countries with incentives to fight against global warming and contamination and promote vehicle fuel efficiency, the pay-back period can be immediate, and all-combustion-engine vehicles can cost more than hybrids because they generate more pollution.
Toyota and Honda have already said they've halved the incremental cost of electric hybrids and see cost parity in the future (even without incentives).[278]
Raw materials shortage[edit]
 | This section is outdated. (August 2013) |
The rare earth element dysprosium is required to fabricate many of the advanced electric motors and battery systems in hybrid propulsion systems.[279][280]
However, nearly all the rare earth elements in the world come from China,[281] and one analyst believes that an overall increase in Chinese electronics manufacturing may consume this entire supply by 2012.[280] In addition, export quotas on Chinese rare earth exports have resulted in a generally shaky supply of those metals.[279][282]
A few non-Chinese sources such as the advanced Hoidas Lake project in northern Canada and Mt Weld in Australia are currently under development,[282] however it is not known if these sources will be developed before a shortage hits.
Legislation and incentives[edit]
In order to encourage the purchase of HEVs, several countries have introduced legislation for incentives and ecotaxes.
Canada[edit]
Residents of Ontario and Quebec in Canada can claim a rebate on the Provincial Retail Sales Tax of up to $2,000 CDN on the purchase or lease of a hybrid electric vehicle.[283]Ontario has a green license plate for hybrid car users and was to announce a slew of benefits to go along with it in 2008.[284] Residents in British Columbia are eligible for a 100% reduction of sales tax up to a maximum of $2,000 if the hybrid electric vehicle is purchased or leased before April 1, 2011, (extended in 2007/2008 budget from March 31, 2008, and expanded from a maximum of only $1,000 from April 1, 2008, to March 31, 2009, at which point the concession was scheduled to expire.)[285] Prince Edward Island residents can claim rebates on the Provincial Sales Tax of up to $3,000 CDN on the purchase or lease of any hybrid vehicles since March 30, 2004.[286]
Israel[edit]
In Haifa, hybrid vehicles are entitled to a free parking in city's parking lots for domestic citizens. Other cities, such as Petah-Tikva, have quickly adopted similar free parking for hybrid cars.
Japan[edit]
In 2009 the Japanese government implemented a set of policies and incentives that included a scrappage program, tax breaks on hybrid vehicles and other low emission cars and trucks, and a higher levy on gasoline that raised prices in the order of USD 4.50 per gallon. New hybrid car sales for 2009 were almost triple those for 2008.[55][168]
Jordan[edit]
In Jordan, customs and sales tax reduced for all hybrid vehicles from 55% to 25% of the vehicle list price, 12.5% customs fees and sales tax, if the new hybrid is a replacement for an old car (more than 10 years age).
Malaysia[edit]
In Malaysia, since mid 2014 all (CBU) fully imported hybrid and EV cars sold in Malaysia gets significantly increase of price after the CBU hybrid and EV incentive package that expired on December 31, 2013. The cars that effected are Toyota Prius, Toyota Prius c, Honda Civic Hybrid, Honda Insight, Honda CR-Z, Lexus CT200h, Audi A6 Hybrid,Mitsubishi i-MiEV and Nissan Leaf. However the exemption of excise duties and import taxes for hybrids and EV will be extended for models that are (CKD) assembled in Malaysia. The exemption will be extended until December 31, 2015 for hybrids and December 31, 2017 for EVs. Only the locally assembled Honda Jazz Hybrid, Mercedes-Benz S400 L Hybrid, Toyota Camry Hybrid and the facelifted Nissan Serena S-Hybrid are entitled for hybrid inducements.
Netherlands[edit]
In the Netherlands, the vehicle registration tax (VRT), payable when a car is sold to its first buyer, can earn the owner of an HEV a discount up to €6,000.
New Zealand[edit]
In Christchurch, hybrid vehicles are entitled to an hour free parking in city council parking buildings. Where those buildings already provide an hour free, hybrid vehicles are entitled to an extra hour free.
Republic of Ireland[edit]
In the Republic of Ireland, a discount of up to €1500 on VRT for hybrids, and up to €2500 for plugin hybrids is available until 31 December 2012.[287] Previously there was a potential reduction of 50% of VRT applicable before July 2008, when VRT rates were based on engine size, rather than the current CO2 emissions system.[288]
Sweden[edit]
In Sweden there is an "Eco car" subsidy of SEK 10 000 (~ USD 1.600) cash payout to private car owners. For fringe benefit cars there is a reduction of the benefit tax of 40% for EVs & HEVs and 20% for other "Eco cars".[289]
United Kingdom[edit]
Drivers of HEVs in the United Kingdom benefit from the lowest band of vehicle excise duty (car tax), which is based on carbon dioxide emissions. In central London, these vehicles are also exempt from the £8 daily London congestion charge.[290] Due to their low levels of regulated emissions, the greenest cars are eligible for 100% discount under the current system. To be eligible the car must be on the current Power Shift Register.[291] At present, these include the cleanest LPG and natural gas cars and most hybrid-, battery- and fuel cell-electric vehicles.
United States[edit]
Federal[edit]
Further information: Hybrid tax credit
The purchase of hybrid electric cars qualifies for a federal income tax credit up to $3,400 on the purchaser's Federal income taxes.[292] Thetax credit is to be phased out two calendar quarters after the manufacturer reaches 60,000 new cars sold in the following manner: it will be reduced to 50% if delivered in either the third or fourth quarter after the threshold is reached, to 25% in the fifth and sixth quarters, and 0% thereafter.[293]
As of April 2010 three auto manufactures have reached the 60,000 cap, Toyota Motor Company reached it in 2007, Honda in 2008, and as of April 1, 2010, all Ford Motor Company hybrid vehicles are also no longer eligible for this tax credit.[294] Vehicles purchased after December 31, 2010, are not eligible for this credit as this benefit will expire on this date.[292][294]
States and local[edit]
- Certain states (e.g., New York, California, Virginia, and Florida) allow singly occupied HEVs to enter the HOV lanes on the highway.Initially, the Federal Highway Administration ruled that this was a violation of federal statute[295]until August 10, 2005, when George W. Bush signed the Transportation Equity Act of 2005 into law. In California, a total of 85,250 owners of the three eligible hybrid models benefited from free access to HOV lanes from 2004 to mid-2011.[296] This incentive expired on July 1, 2011, and now hybrids are required to comply the minimum passenger requirements to use the HOV lanes.[297]
- Some states, e.g. California, exempt hybrid electric cars from the biennial smog inspection, which costs over $50 (as of 2004).
- The city of San Jose, California issued a free parking tag until 2007 when it became issued for a fee annually for hybrid electric cars that were purchased at a San Jose dealership. The qualified owners do not have to pay for parking in any city garage or road side parking meters.
- The city of Los Angeles, California offers free parking to all HEVs which started on 1 October 2004. The experiment is an extension to an existing offer of free parking for all pure electrical vehicles.
- In October 2005, the city of Baltimore, Maryland, started to offer discount on monthly parking in the city parking lots, and is considering free meter parking for HEVs. On 3 November 2005, the Boston Globe reports that the city council of Boston is considering the same treatment for hybrid electric cars.
- Annual vehicle registration fees in the District of Columbia are half ($36) that paid for conventional vehicles ($72).
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Wednesday, February 17, 2016
Do You Believe That This Is The Home Stretch?? Just Know This Is Not A Game Of Checkers On Chess. This Is A Breathing Method To Know That Life Is A Dust^Stir To The Shelves Of A Library Men^Shin!!
Turing machine
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the symbol manipulator. For the deciphering machine, see Bombe. For the test of artificial intelligence, see Turing test. For the instrumental rock band, see Turing Machine (band).
A Turing machine is an abstract machine[1] that manipulates symbols on a strip of tape according to a table of rules; to be more exact, it is a mathematical model that defines such a device.[2] Despite the model's simplicity, given any computer algorithm, a Turing machine can be constructed that is capable of simulating that algorithm's logic.[3]
The machine operates on an infinite[4] memory tape divided into cells.[5] The machine positions its head over a cell and "reads" (scans[6]) the symbol there. Then per the symbol and its present place in a finite table[7] of user-specified instructions the machine (i) writes a symbol (e.g. a digit or a letter from a finite alphabet) in the cell (some models allowing symbol erasure[8] and/or no writing), then (ii) either moves the tape one cell left or right (some models allow no motion, some models move the head),[9] then (iii) (as determined by the observed symbol and the machine's place in the table) either proceeds to a subsequent instruction or halts[10] the computation.
The Turing machine was invented in 1936 by Alan Turing,[11][12] who called it an a-machine (automatic machine).[13] With this model Turing was able to answer two questions in the negative: (1) Does a machine exist that can determine whether any arbitrary machine on its tape is "circular" (e.g. freezes, or fails to continue its computational task); similarly, (2) does a machine exist that can determine whether any arbitrary machine on its tape ever prints a given symbol.[14] Thus by providing a mathematical description of a very simple device capable of arbitrary computations, he was able to prove properties of computation in general - and in particular, the uncomputability of the Hilbert Entscheidungsproblem ("decision problem").[15]
Thus, Turing machines prove fundamental limitations on the power of mechanical computation.[16] While they can express arbitrary computations, their minimalistic design makes them unsuitable for computation in practice: actual computers are based on different designs that, unlike Turing machines, use random access memory.
Turing completeness is the ability for a system of instructions to simulate a Turing machine. A programming language that is Turing complete is theoretically capable of expressing all tasks accomplishable by computers; nearly all programming languages are Turing complete.
Contents
[hide]- 1Overview
- 2Informal description
- 3Formal definition
- 4Additional details required to visualize or implement Turing machines
- 5Models equivalent to the Turing machine model
- 6Choice c-machines, Oracle o-machines
- 7Universal Turing machines
- 8Comparison with real machines
- 9History
- 9.1Historical background: computational machinery
- 9.2The Entscheidungsproblem (the "decision problem"): Hilbert's tenth question of 1900
- 9.3Alan Turing's a- (automatic-)machine
- 9.41937–1970: The "digital computer", the birth of "computer science"
- 9.51970–present: the Turing machine as a model of computation
- 10See also
- 11Notes
- 12References
- 13External links
Overview[edit]
A Turing machine is a general example of a CPU that controls all data manipulation done by a computer, with the canonical machine using sequential memory to store data. More specifically, it is a machine (automaton) capable of enumerating some arbitrary subset of valid strings of an alphabet; these strings are part of a recursively enumerable set.
Assuming a black box, the Turing machine cannot know whether it will eventually enumerate any one specific string of the subset with a given program. This is due to the fact that the halting problem is unsolvable, which has major implications for the theoretical limits of computing.
The Turing machine is capable of processing an unrestricted grammar, which further implies that it is capable of robustly evaluating first-order logic in an infinite number of ways. This is famously demonstrated through lambda calculus.
A Turing machine that is able to simulate any other Turing machine is called a universal Turing machine (UTM, or simply a universal machine). A more mathematically oriented definition with a similar "universal" nature was introduced by Alonzo Church, whose work on lambda calculus intertwined with Turing's in a formal theory of computation known as the Church–Turing thesis. The thesis states that Turing machines indeed capture the informal notion of effective methods in logic and mathematics, and provide a precise definition of an algorithm or "mechanical procedure". Studying their abstract properties yields many insights into computer science and complexity theory.
Physical description[edit]
In his 1948 essay, "Intelligent Machinery", Turing wrote that his machine consisted of:
- ...an unlimited memory capacity obtained in the form of an infinite tape marked out into squares, on each of which a symbol could be printed. At any moment there is one symbol in the machine; it is called the scanned symbol. The machine can alter the scanned symbol, and its behavior is in part determined by that symbol, but the symbols on the tape elsewhere do not affect the behavior of the machine. However, the tape can be moved back and forth through the machine, this being one of the elementary operations of the machine. Any symbol on the tape may therefore eventually have an innings.[17] (Turing 1948, p. 3[18])
Informal description[edit]
For visualizations of Turing machines, see Turing machine gallery.
The Turing machine mathematically models a machine that mechanically operates on a tape. On this tape are symbols, which the machine can read and write, one at a time, using a tape head. Operation is fully determined by a finite set of elementary instructions such as "in state 42, if the symbol seen is 0, write a 1; if the symbol seen is 1, change into state 17; in state 17, if the symbol seen is 0, write a 1 and change to state 6;" etc. In the original article ("On computable numbers, with an application to theEntscheidungsproblem", see also references below), Turing imagines not a mechanism, but a person whom he calls the "computer", who executes these deterministic mechanical rules slavishly (or as Turing puts it, "in a desultory manner").
More precisely, a Turing machine consists of:
- A tape divided into cells, one next to the other. Each cell contains a symbol from some finite alphabet. The alphabet contains a special blank symbol (here written as '0') and one or more other symbols. The tape is assumed to be arbitrarily extendable to the left and to the right, i.e., the Turing machine is always supplied with as much tape as it needs for its computation. Cells that have not been written before are assumed to be filled with the blank symbol. In some models the tape has a left end marked with a special symbol; the tape extends or is indefinitely extensible to the right.
- A head that can read and write symbols on the tape and move the tape left and right one (and only one) cell at a time. In some models the head moves and the tape is stationary.
- A state register that stores the state of the Turing machine, one of finitely many. Among these is the special start state with which the state register is initialized. These states, writes Turing, replace the "state of mind" a person performing computations would ordinarily be in.
- A finite table[19] of instructions[20] that, given the state(qi) the machine is currently in and the symbol(aj) it is reading on the tape (symbol currently under the head), tells the machine to do the following in sequence (for the 5-tuple models):
- Either erase or write a symbol (replacing aj with aj1), and then
- Move the head (which is described by dk and can have values: 'L' for one step left or 'R' for one step right or 'N' for staying in the same place), and then
- Assume the same or a new state as prescribed (go to state qi1).
Note that every part of the machine (i.e. its state, symbol-collections, and used tape at any given time) and its actions (such as printing, erasing and tape motion) is finite, discreteand distinguishable; it is the unlimited amount of tape and runtime that gives it an unbounded amount of storage space.
Formal definition[edit]
Following Hopcroft and Ullman (1979, p. 148), a (one-tape) Turing machine can be formally defined as a 7-tuple 
where
where
is a finite, non-empty set of states
is a finite, non-empty set of tape alphabet symbols
is the blank symbol (the only symbol allowed to occur on the tape infinitely often at any step during the computation)
is the set of input symbols
is a partial function called the transition function, where L is left shift, R is right shift. (A relatively uncommon variant allows "no shift", say N, as a third element of the latter set.) If 
is not defined on the current state and the current tape symbol, then the machine halts.[21]
is the initial state
is the set of final or accepting states. The initial tape contents is said to be accepted by 
if it eventually halts in a state from 
.
Anything that operates according to these specifications is a Turing machine.
The 7-tuple for the 3-state busy beaver looks like this (see more about this busy beaver at Turing machine examples):
("blank")
(the initial state)
see state-table below
Initially all tape cells are marked with 
.
.| Tape symbol | Current state A | Current state B | Current state C | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Write symbol | Move tape | Next state | Write symbol | Move tape | Next state | Write symbol | Move tape | Next state | |
| 0 | 1 | R | B | 1 | L | A | 1 | L | B |
| 1 | 1 | L | C | 1 | R | B | 1 | R | HALT |
Additional details required to visualize or implement Turing machines[edit]
In the words of van Emde Boas (1990), p. 6: "The set-theoretical object [his formal seven-tuple description similar to the above] provides only partial information on how the machine will behave and what its computations will look like."
For instance,
- There will need to be many decisions on what the symbols actually look like, and a failproof way of reading and writing symbols indefinitely.
- The shift left and shift right operations may shift the tape head across the tape, but when actually building a Turing machine it is more practical to make the tape slide back and forth under the head instead.
- The tape can be finite, and automatically extended with blanks as needed (which is closest to the mathematical definition), but it is more common to think of it as stretching infinitely at both ends and being pre-filled with blanks except on the explicitly given finite fragment the tape head is on. (This is, of course, not implementable in practice.) The tape cannot be fixed in length, since that would not correspond to the given definition and would seriously limit the range of computations the machine can perform to those of a linear bounded automaton.
Alternative definitions[edit]
Definitions in literature sometimes differ slightly, to make arguments or proofs easier or clearer, but this is always done in such a way that the resulting machine has the same computational power. For example, changing the set 
to 
, where N ("None" or "No-operation") would allow the machine to stay on the same tape cell instead of moving left or right, does not increase the machine's computational power.
to , where N ("None" or "No-operation") would allow the machine to stay on the same tape cell instead of moving left or right, does not increase the machine's computational power.The most common convention represents each "Turing instruction" in a "Turing table" by one of nine 5-tuples, per the convention of Turing/Davis (Turing (1936) in Undecidable, p. 126-127 and Davis (2000) p. 152):
- (definition 1): (qi, Sj, Sk/E/N, L/R/N, qm)
- ( current state qi , symbol scanned Sj , print symbol Sk/erase E/none N , move_tape_one_square left L/right R/none N , new state qm )
Other authors (Minsky (1967) p. 119, Hopcroft and Ullman (1979) p. 158, Stone (1972) p. 9) adopt a different convention, with new state qm listed immediately after the scanned symbol Sj:
- (definition 2): (qi, Sj, qm, Sk/E/N, L/R/N)
- ( current state qi , symbol scanned Sj , new state qm , print symbol Sk/erase E/none N , move_tape_one_square left L/right R/none N )
For the remainder of this article "definition 1" (the Turing/Davis convention) will be used.
| Current state | Scanned symbol | Print symbol | Move tape | Final (i.e. next) state | 5-tuples | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| A | 0 | 1 | R | B | (A, 0, 1, R, B) | |
| A | 1 | 1 | L | C | (A, 1, 1, L, C) | |
| B | 0 | 1 | L | A | (B, 0, 1, L, A) | |
| B | 1 | 1 | R | B | (B, 1, 1, R, B) | |
| C | 0 | 1 | L | B | (C, 0, 1, L, B) | |
| C | 1 | 1 | N | H | (C, 1, 1, N, H) |
In the following table, Turing's original model allowed only the first three lines that he called N1, N2, N3 (cf Turing in Undecidable, p. 126). He allowed for erasure of the "scanned square" by naming a 0th symbol S0 = "erase" or "blank", etc. However, he did not allow for non-printing, so every instruction-line includes "print symbol Sk" or "erase" (cf footnote 12 in Post (1947), Undecidable p. 300). The abbreviations are Turing's (Undecidable p. 119). Subsequent to Turing's original paper in 1936–1937, machine-models have allowed all nine possible types of five-tuples:
| Current m-configuration (Turing state) | Tape symbol | Print-operation | Tape-motion | Final m-configuration (Turing state) | 5-tuple | 5-tuple comments | 4-tuple | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| N1 | qi | Sj | Print(Sk) | Left L | qm | (qi, Sj, Sk, L, qm) | "blank" = S0, 1=S1, etc. | |
| N2 | qi | Sj | Print(Sk) | Right R | qm | (qi, Sj, Sk, R, qm) | "blank" = S0, 1=S1, etc. | |
| N3 | qi | Sj | Print(Sk) | None N | qm | (qi, Sj, Sk, N, qm) | "blank" = S0, 1=S1, etc. | (qi, Sj, Sk, qm) |
| 4 | qi | Sj | None N | Left L | qm | (qi, Sj, N, L, qm) | (qi, Sj, L, qm) | |
| 5 | qi | Sj | None N | Right R | qm | (qi, Sj, N, R, qm) | (qi, Sj, R, qm) | |
| 6 | qi | Sj | None N | None N | qm | (qi, Sj, N, N, qm) | Direct "jump" | (qi, Sj, N, qm) |
| 7 | qi | Sj | Erase | Left L | qm | (qi, Sj, E, L, qm) | ||
| 8 | qi | Sj | Erase | Right R | qm | (qi, Sj, E, R, qm) | ||
| 9 | qi | Sj | Erase | None N | qm | (qi, Sj, E, N, qm) | (qi, Sj, E, qm) |
Any Turing table (list of instructions) can be constructed from the above nine 5-tuples. For technical reasons, the three non-printing or "N" instructions (4, 5, 6) can usually be dispensed with. For examples see Turing machine examples.
Less frequently the use of 4-tuples are encountered: these represent a further atomization of the Turing instructions (cf Post (1947), Boolos & Jeffrey (1974, 1999), Davis-Sigal-Weyuker (1994)); also see more at Post–Turing machine.
The "state"[edit]
The word "state" used in context of Turing machines can be a source of confusion, as it can mean two things. Most commentators after Turing have used "state" to mean the name/designator of the current instruction to be performed—i.e. the contents of the state register. But Turing (1936) made a strong distinction between a record of what he called the machine's "m-configuration", (its internal state) and the machine's (or person's) "state of progress" through the computation - the current state of the total system. What Turing called "the state formula" includes both the current instruction and all the symbols on the tape:
Earlier in his paper Turing carried this even further: he gives an example where he placed a symbol of the current "m-configuration"—the instruction's label—beneath the scanned square, together with all the symbols on the tape (Undecidable, p. 121); this he calls "the complete configuration" (Undecidable, p. 118). To print the "complete configuration" on one line, he places the state-label/m-configuration to the left of the scanned symbol.
A variant of this is seen in Kleene (1952) where Kleene shows how to write the Gödel number of a machine's "situation": he places the "m-configuration" symbol q4 over the scanned square in roughly the center of the 6 non-blank squares on the tape (see the Turing-tape figure in this article) and puts it to the right of the scanned square. But Kleene refers to "q4" itself as "the machine state" (Kleene, p. 374-375). Hopcroft and Ullman call this composite the "instantaneous description" and follow the Turing convention of putting the "current state" (instruction-label, m-configuration) to the left of the scanned symbol (p. 149).
Example: total state of 3-state 2-symbol busy beaver after 3 "moves" (taken from example "run" in the figure below):
- 1A1
This means: after three moves the tape has ... 000110000 ... on it, the head is scanning the right-most 1, and the state is A. Blanks (in this case represented by "0"s) can be part of the total state as shown here: B01; the tape has a single 1 on it, but the head is scanning the 0 ("blank") to its left and the state is B.
"State" in the context of Turing machines should be clarified as to which is being described: (i) the current instruction, or (ii) the list of symbols on the tape together with the current instruction, or (iii) the list of symbols on the tape together with the current instruction placed to the left of the scanned symbol or to the right of the scanned symbol.
Turing's biographer Andrew Hodges (1983: 107) has noted and discussed this confusion.
Turing machine "state" diagrams[edit]
| Tape symbol | Current state A | Current state B | Current state C | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Write symbol | Move tape | Next state | Write symbol | Move tape | Next state | Write symbol | Move tape | Next state | |
| 0 | P | R | B | P | L | A | P | L | B |
| 1 | P | L | C | P | R | B | P | R | HALT |
To the right: the above TABLE as expressed as a "state transition" diagram.
Usually large TABLES are better left as tables (Booth, p. 74). They are more readily simulated by computer in tabular form (Booth, p. 74). However, certain concepts—e.g. machines with "reset" states and machines with repeating patterns (cf Hill and Peterson p. 244ff)—can be more readily seen when viewed as a drawing.
Whether a drawing represents an improvement on its TABLE must be decided by the reader for the particular context. See Finite state machine for more.
The reader should again be cautioned that such diagrams represent a snapshot of their TABLE frozen in time, not the course ("trajectory") of a computation through time and/or space. While every time the busy beaver machine "runs" it will always follow the same state-trajectory, this is not true for the "copy" machine that can be provided with variable input "parameters".
The diagram "Progress of the computation" shows the 3-state busy beaver's "state" (instruction) progress through its computation from start to finish. On the far right is the Turing "complete configuration" (Kleene "situation", Hopcroft–Ullman "instantaneous description") at each step. If the machine were to be stopped and cleared to blank both the "state register" and entire tape, these "configurations" could be used to rekindle a computation anywhere in its progress (cf Turing (1936) Undecidable pp. 139–140).
Models equivalent to the Turing machine model[edit]
Many machines that might be thought to have more computational capability than a simple universal Turing machine can be shown to have no more power (Hopcroft and Ullman p. 159, cf Minsky (1967)). They might compute faster, perhaps, or use less memory, or their instruction set might be smaller, but they cannot compute more powerfully (i.e. more mathematical functions). (Recall that the Church–Turing thesis hypothesizes this to be true for any kind of machine: that anything that can be "computed" can be computed by some Turing machine.)
A Turing machine is equivalent to a pushdown automaton that has been made more flexible and concise by relaxing the last-in-first-out requirement of its stack.
At the other extreme, some very simple models turn out to be Turing-equivalent, i.e. to have the same computational power as the Turing machine model.
Common equivalent models are the multi-tape Turing machine, multi-track Turing machine, machines with input and output, and the non-deterministic Turing machine (NDTM) as opposed to the deterministic Turing machine (DTM) for which the action table has at most one entry for each combination of symbol and state.
Read-only, right-moving Turing machines are equivalent to NDFAs (as well as DFAs by conversion using the NDFA to DFA conversion algorithm).
For practical and didactical intentions the equivalent register machine can be used as a usual assembly programming language.
Choice c-machines, Oracle o-machines[edit]
Early in his paper (1936) Turing makes a distinction between an "automatic machine"—its "motion ... completely determined by the configuration" and a "choice machine":
Turing (1936) does not elaborate further except in a footnote in which he describes how to use an a-machine to "find all the provable formulae of the [Hilbert] calculus" rather than use a choice machine. He "suppose[s] that the choices are always between two possibilities 0 and 1. Each proof will then be determined by a sequence of choices i1, i2, ..., in(i1 = 0 or 1, i2 = 0 or 1, ..., in = 0 or 1), and hence the number 2n + i12n-1 + i22n-2 + ... +in completely determines the proof. The automatic machine carries out successively proof 1, proof 2, proof 3, ..." (Footnote ‡, Undecidable, p. 138)
This is indeed the technique by which a deterministic (i.e. a-) Turing machine can be used to mimic the action of a nondeterministic Turing machine; Turing solved the matter in a footnote and appears to dismiss it from further consideration.
An oracle machine or o-machine is a Turing a-machine that pauses its computation at state "o" while, to complete its calculation, it "awaits the decision" of "the oracle"—an unspecified entity "apart from saying that it cannot be a machine" (Turing (1939), Undecidable p. 166–168). The concept is now actively used by mathematicians.
Universal Turing machines[edit]
Main article: Universal Turing machine
As Turing wrote in Undecidable, p. 128 (italics added):
This finding is now taken for granted, but at the time (1936) it was considered astonishing. The model of computation that Turing called his "universal machine"—"U" for short—is considered by some (cf Davis (2000)) to have been the fundamental theoretical breakthrough that led to the notion of the stored-program computer.
In terms of computational complexity, a multi-tape universal Turing machine need only be slower by logarithmic factor compared to the machines it simulates. This result was obtained in 1966 by F. C. Hennie and R. E. Stearns. (Arora and Barak, 2009, theorem 1.9)
Comparison with real machines[edit]
It is often said that Turing machines, unlike simpler automata, are as powerful as real machines, and are able to execute any operation that a real program can. What is neglected in this statement is that, because a real machine can only have a finite number ofconfigurations, this "real machine" is really nothing but a linear bounded automaton. On the other hand, Turing machines are equivalent to machines that have an unlimited amount of storage space for their computations. However, Turing machines are not intended to model computers, but rather they are intended to model computation itself. Historically, computers, which compute only on their (fixed) internal storage, were developed only later.
There are a number of ways to explain why Turing machines are useful models of real computers:
- Anything a real computer can compute, a Turing machine can also compute. For example: "A Turing machine can simulate any type of subroutine found in programming languages, including recursive procedures and any of the known parameter-passing mechanisms" (Hopcroft and Ullman p. 157). A large enough FSA can also model any real computer, disregarding IO. Thus, a statement about the limitations of Turing machines will also apply to real computers.
- The difference lies only with the ability of a Turing machine to manipulate an unbounded amount of data. However, given a finite amount of time, a Turing machine (like a real machine) can only manipulate a finite amount of data.
- Like a Turing machine, a real machine can have its storage space enlarged as needed, by acquiring more disks or other storage media. If the supply of these runs short, the Turing machine may become less useful as a model. But the fact is that neither Turing machines nor real machines need astronomical amounts of storage space in order to perform useful computation. The processing time required is usually much more of a problem.
- Descriptions of real machine programs using simpler abstract models are often much more complex than descriptions using Turing machines. For example, a Turing machine describing an algorithm may have a few hundred states, while the equivalent deterministic finite automaton (DFA) on a given real machine has quadrillions. This makes the DFA representation infeasible to analyze.
- Turing machines describe algorithms independent of how much memory they use. There is a limit to the memory possessed by any current machine, but this limit can rise arbitrarily in time. Turing machines allow us to make statements about algorithms which will (theoretically) hold forever, regardless of advances in conventional computing machine architecture.
- Turing machines simplify the statement of algorithms. Algorithms running on Turing-equivalent abstract machines are usually more general than their counterparts running on real machines, because they have arbitrary-precision data types available and never have to deal with unexpected conditions (including, but not limited to, running out of memory).
One way in which Turing machines are a poor model for programs is that many real programs, such as operating systems and word processors, are written to receive unbounded input over time, and therefore do not halt. Turing machines do not model such ongoing computation well (but can still model portions of it, such as individual procedures).
Limitations of Turing machines[edit]
Computational complexity theory[edit]
Further information: Computational complexity theory
A limitation of Turing machines is that they do not model the strengths of a particular arrangement well. For instance, modern stored-program computers are actually instances of a more specific form of abstract machine known as the random access stored program machine or RASP machine model. Like the Universal Turing machine the RASP stores its "program" in "memory" external to its finite-state machine's "instructions". Unlike the universal Turing machine, the RASP has an infinite number of distinguishable, numbered but unbounded "registers"—memory "cells" that can contain any integer (cf. Elgot and Robinson (1964), Hartmanis (1971), and in particular Cook-Rechow (1973); references atrandom access machine). The RASP's finite-state machine is equipped with the capability for indirect addressing (e.g. the contents of one register can be used as an address to specify another register); thus the RASP's "program" can address any register in the register-sequence. The upshot of this distinction is that there are computational optimizations that can be performed based on the memory indices, which are not possible in a general Turing machine; thus when Turing machines are used as the basis for bounding running times, a 'false lower bound' can be proven on certain algorithms' running times (due to the false simplifying assumption of a Turing machine). An example of this is binary search, an algorithm that can be shown to perform more quickly when using the RASP model of computation rather than the Turing machine model.
Concurrency[edit]
 | This section does not cite any sources. (April 2015) |
Another limitation of Turing machines is that they do not model concurrency well. For example, there is a bound on the size of integer that can be computed by an always-halting nondeterministic Turing machine starting on a blank tape. (See article on unbounded nondeterminism.) By contrast, there are always-halting concurrent systems with no inputs that can compute an integer of unbounded size. (A process can be created with local storage that is initialized with a count of 0 that concurrently sends itself both a stop and a go message. When it receives a go message, it increments its count by 1 and sends itself a go message. When it receives a stop message, it stops with an unbounded number in its local storage.)
History[edit]
See also: Algorithm and Church–Turing thesis
They were described in 1936 by Alan Turing.
Historical background: computational machinery[edit]
Robin Gandy (1919–1995)—a student of Alan Turing (1912–1954) and his lifelong friend—traces the lineage of the notion of "calculating machine" back to Babbage (circa 1834) and actually proposes "Babbage's Thesis":
Gandy's analysis of Babbage's Analytical Engine describes the following five operations (cf p. 52–53):
- The arithmetic functions +, −, × where − indicates "proper" subtraction x − y = 0 if y ≥ x
- Any sequence of operations is an operation
- Iteration of an operation (repeating n times an operation P)
- Conditional iteration (repeating n times an operation P conditional on the "success" of test T)
- Conditional transfer (i.e. conditional "goto").
Gandy states that "the functions which can be calculated by (1), (2), and (4) are precisely those which are Turing computable." (p. 53). He cites other proposals for "universal calculating machines" including those of Percy Ludgate (1909), Leonardo Torres y Quevedo (1914), Maurice d'Ocagne (1922), Louis Couffignal (1933), Vannevar Bush (1936),Howard Aiken (1937). However:
The Entscheidungsproblem (the "decision problem"): Hilbert's tenth question of 1900[edit]
With regards to Hilbert's problems posed by the famous mathematician David Hilbert in 1900, an aspect of problem #10 had been floating about for almost 30 years before it was framed precisely. Hilbert's original expression for #10 is as follows:
By 1922, this notion of "Entscheidungsproblem" had developed a bit, and H. Behmann stated that
By the 1928 international congress of mathematicians, Hilbert "made his questions quite precise. First, was mathematics complete ... Second, was mathematics consistent ... And thirdly, was mathematics decidable?" (Hodges p. 91, Hawking p. 1121). The first two questions were answered in 1930 by Kurt Gödel at the very same meeting where Hilbert delivered his retirement speech (much to the chagrin of Hilbert); the third—the Entscheidungsproblem—had to wait until the mid-1930s.
The problem was that an answer first required a precise definition of "definite general applicable prescription", which Princeton professor Alonzo Church would come to call "effective calculability", and in 1928 no such definition existed. But over the next 6–7 years Emil Post developed his definition of a worker moving from room to room writing and erasing marks per a list of instructions (Post 1936), as did Church and his two students Stephen Kleene and J. B. Rosser by use of Church's lambda-calculus and Gödel'srecursion theory (1934). Church's paper (published 15 April 1936) showed that the Entscheidungsproblem was indeed "undecidable" and beat Turing to the punch by almost a year (Turing's paper submitted 28 May 1936, published January 1937). In the meantime, Emil Post submitted a brief paper in the fall of 1936, so Turing at least had priority over Post. While Church refereed Turing's paper, Turing had time to study Church's paper and add an Appendix where he sketched a proof that Church's lambda-calculus and his machines would compute the same functions.
And Post had only proposed a definition of calculability and criticized Church's "definition", but had proved nothing.
Alan Turing's a- (automatic-)machine[edit]
In the spring of 1935, Turing as a young Master's student at King's College Cambridge, UK, took on the challenge; he had been stimulated by the lectures of the logician M. H. A. Newman "and learned from them of Gödel's work and the Entscheidungsproblem ... Newman used the word 'mechanical' ... In his obituary of Turing 1955 Newman writes:
Gandy states that:
While Gandy believed that Newman's statement above is "misleading", this opinion is not shared by all. Turing had a lifelong interest in machines: "Alan had dreamt of inventing typewriters as a boy; [his mother] Mrs. Turing had a typewriter; and he could well have begun by asking himself what was meant by calling a typewriter 'mechanical'" (Hodges p. 96). While at Princeton pursuing his PhD, Turing built a Boolean-logic multiplier (see below). His PhD thesis, titled "Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals", contains the following definition of "a computable function":
When Turing returned to the UK he ultimately became jointly responsible for breaking the German secret codes created by encryption machines called "The Enigma"; he also became involved in the design of the ACE (Automatic Computing Engine), "[Turing's] ACE proposal was effectively self-contained, and its roots lay not in the EDVAC [the USA's initiative], but in his own universal machine" (Hodges p. 318). Arguments still continue concerning the origin and nature of what has been named by Kleene (1952) Turing's Thesis. But what Turing did prove with his computational-machine model appears in his paper On Computable Numbers, With an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem(1937):
Turing's example (his second proof): If one is to ask for a general procedure to tell us: "Does this machine ever print 0", the question is "undecidable".
1937–1970: The "digital computer", the birth of "computer science"[edit]
In 1937, while at Princeton working on his PhD thesis, Turing built a digital (Boolean-logic) multiplier from scratch, making his own electromechanical relays (Hodges p. 138). "Alan's task was to embody the logical design of a Turing machine in a network of relay-operated switches ..." (Hodges p. 138). While Turing might have been just initially curious and experimenting, quite-earnest work in the same direction was going in Germany (Konrad Zuse (1938)), and in the United States (Howard Aiken) and George Stibitz (1937); the fruits of their labors were used by the Axis and Allied military in World War II (cf Hodges p. 298–299). In the early to mid-1950s Hao Wang and Marvin Minsky reduced the Turing machine to a simpler form (a precursor to the Post-Turing machine of Martin Davis); simultaneously European researchers were reducing the new-fangled electronic computer to a computer-like theoretical object equivalent to what was now being called a "Turing machine". In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the coincidentally parallel developments of Melzak and Lambek (1961), Minsky (1961), and Shepherdson and Sturgis (1961) carried the European work further and reduced the Turing machine to a more friendly, computer-like abstract model called the counter machine; Elgot and Robinson (1964), Hartmanis (1971), Cook and Reckhow (1973) carried this work even further with the register machine and random access machine models—but basically all are just multi-tape Turing machines with an arithmetic-like instruction set.
1970–present: the Turing machine as a model of computation[edit]
Today, the counter, register and random-access machines and their sire the Turing machine continue to be the models of choice for theorists investigating questions in the theory of computation. In particular, computational complexity theory makes use of the Turing machine:
Kantorovitz(2005) Sweden was the first to show the most simple obvious representation of Turing Machines published academically which unifies Turing Machines with mathematical analysis and analog computers.
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