I would like it to be known that I would like no donations. I would like all that would ordinarily start a fund to understand that I want any and all to actually go and visit, i.e., https://www.andbeyond.com/places-to-stay/africa/uganda/bwindi-impenetrable-forest/volcanoes-bwindi-safari-lodge/
Please go to the fact!! To see is to make new friends and have new ideas about hugs and laughter, education and story. The return to our country The United States of America will include your magical experience along with wonderful interest returned to our Zoo's. These precious moments for I in San Francisco have been the massive lease of only I and my children seeing the beauty and teaching guide as our gorilla exhibit (http://www.sfzoo.org/animals/mammals/westernlowlandgorilla.htm) the Jones Family Gorilla Preserve provided just love.
This is more than an experience for us as the talk of silent on my part was the dream to fly them to Bwindi and now I have the perfectly named spot to arrange in gift to my future a real locale!! As my children were small when this happened I love the City Zoo for showing my kids the gift of my future thought. Thank you San Francisco Zoo & Gardens!! Loving the Carousel as a child it was Gordon and Anna Marie Mackenzie that brought just love, may your might reflect that name someday or might I purchase a brass plate for a bench for the Old's so that all may enjoy the seat of wonder to say that death is real and being taken from our arms and hugs without explanation be what is life's explanation to our reason for more than human contact as it is the eye to eye introduction that produced love to more than just a zoo. To no run on sentence I say in pause, I would just love all that would like to donate monies to any political party to halt and enjoy this Planet Earth, might this be your destination and may your love be more than a dollar to your favorite face on television, in a Tweet, at a Rally, or at the stage of what is to come in the next two years as we in the United States of America prepare for the 2020 Presidential Election. Thank you and here is a list of lodge's provided by our local Travel Agency: GOOGLE, might the local Travel Agent demand (I like to use the office down the street or at Twin Peaks (GOOGLE can still be their requested 'Search Engine' as per your mention)).
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"The Bwindi Impenetrable National Park is a biodiverse, mountainous area in southwest Uganda. It's home to many of the world’s remaining mountain gorillas, who feed on roots, leaves and fruits from the park’s many tree and fern species. Restricted numbers of viewing permits help protect the endangered gorilla families. In the park, rough paths weave amid dense forests, which are home to many butterflies and birds."
Address: Buhoma, Uganda
Area: 127.8 mi²
Established: 1991
Mountain gorilla
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The mountain gorilla (Gorilla beringei beringei) is one of two subspecies of the eastern gorilla (Gorilla beringei). It is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List, as the total population is estimated to comprise 1,004 individuals in two populations as of 2018. One population lives in Uganda's Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, and the other in the Virunga Mountains in three adjacent national parks, namely Uganda's Mgahinga Gorilla National Park, Rwanda's Volcanoes National Park, and Virunga National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo.[2]
| Mountain gorilla | |
|---|---|
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| Male, Susa Group, Rwanda | |
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| Female, Titus Family, Rwanda | |
Scientific classification 
| |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Mammalia |
| Order: | Primates |
| Suborder: | Haplorhini |
| Infraorder: | Simiiformes |
| Family: | Hominidae |
| Subfamily: | Homininae |
| Genus: | Gorilla |
| Species: | |
| Subspecies: |
G. b. beringei[1]
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| Trinomial name | |
| Gorilla beringei beringei[1]
Matschie, 1903
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| |
| Distribution range in blue | |
Contents
Evolution, taxonomy and classification
Gorilla taxonomy
Some primatologists[who?] speculate the Bwindi population in Uganda is a separate subspecies,[citation needed] though no description has been finalized.
Physical description
Silverback of Ntambara group, in typical resting attitude
The mountain gorilla is primarily terrestrial and quadrupedal. However, it will climb into fruiting trees if the branches can carry its weight, and it is capable of running bipedally up to 6 m (20 ft).[citation needed] Like all great apes other than humans, its arms are longer than its legs. It moves by knuckle-walking (like the common chimpanzee, but unlike the bonobo and both orangutan species), supporting its weight on the backs of its curved fingers rather than its palms.[citation needed]
The mountain gorilla is diurnal, most active between 6:00 a.m. and 6:00 p.m.[citation needed] Many of these hours are spent eating, as large quantities of food are needed to sustain its massive bulk. It forages in early morning, rests during the late morning and around midday, and in the afternoon it forages again before resting at night. Each gorilla builds a nest from surrounding vegetation to sleep in, constructing a new one every evening. Only infants sleep in the same nest as their mothers. They leave their sleeping sites when the sun rises at around 6 am, except when it is cold and overcast; then they often stay longer in their nests.[10]
Habitat and ecology
Adult male feeding on insects in a rotting tree trunk
The mountain gorilla is primarily a herbivore; the majority of its diet is composed of the leaves, shoots and stems (85.8%) of 142 plant species. It also feeds on bark (6.9%), roots (3.3%), flowers (2.3%), and fruit (1.7%), as well as small invertebrates. (0.1%).[13] Adult males can eat up to 34 kilograms (75 lb) of vegetation a day, while a female can eat as much as 18 kilograms (40 lb).[citation needed]
The home range size (the area used by one group of gorillas during one year) is influenced by availability of food sources and usually includes several vegetation zones. George Schaller identified ten distinct zones, including: the bamboo forests at 2,200–2,800 metres (7,200–9,200 ft); the Hagenia forests at 2,800–3,400 metres (9,200–11,200 ft); and the giant senecio zone at 3,400–4,300 metres (11,200–14,100 ft).[10] The mountain gorilla spends most of its time in the Hagenia forests, where galium vines are found year-round. All parts of this vine are consumed: leaves, stems, flowers, and berries. It travels to the bamboo forests during the few months of the year fresh shoots are available, and it climbs into subalpine regions to eat the soft centers of giant senecio trees.[11]
Behaviour
Social structure
The mountain gorilla is highly social, and lives in relatively stable, cohesive groups held together by long-term bonds between adult males and females. Relationships among females are relatively weak.[14] These groups are nonterritorial; the silverback generally defends his group rather than his territory. In the Virunga mountain gorillas, the average length of tenure for a dominant silverback is 4.7 years.[15]
Silverback with female
Two-year-olds, Mubare Group, Uganda
10-month-old baby
Titus Group, Rwanda
10-month-old baby
Titus Group, Rwanda
Most males, and about 60% of females, leave their natal group. Males leave when they are about 11 years old, and often the separation process is slow: they spend more and more time on the edge of the group until they leave altogether.[18] They may travel alone or with an all-male group for 2–5 years before they can attract females to join them and form a new group. Females typically emigrate when they are about 8 years old, either transferring directly to an established group or beginning a new one with a lone male. Females often transfer to a new group several times before they settle down with a certain silverback male.[19]
The dominant silverback generally determines the movements of the group, leading it to appropriate feeding sites throughout the year. He also mediates conflicts within the group and protects it from external threats.[12] When the group is attacked by humans, leopards, or other gorillas, the silverback will protect them even at the cost of his own life.[20] He is the center of attention during rest sessions, and young gorillas frequently stay close to him and include him in their games. If a mother dies or leaves the group, the silverback is usually the one who looks after her abandoned offspring, even allowing them to sleep in his nest.[21] Experienced silverbacks are capable of removing poachers' snares from the hands or feet of their group members.[22]
When the silverback dies or is killed by disease, accident, or poachers, the family group may be disrupted.[11] Unless there is an accepted male descendant capable of taking over his position, the group will either split up or adopt an unrelated male. When a new silverback joins the family group, he may kill all of the infants of the dead silverback.[23] Infanticide has not been observed in stable groups.
Analysis of mountain gorilla genomes by whole genome sequencing indicates that a recent decline in their population size has led to extensive inbreeding.[24] As an apparent result, individuals are typically homozygous for 34% of their genome sequence. Furthermore, homozygosity and the expression of deleterious recessive mutations as consequences of inbreeding have likely resulted in the purging of severely deleterious mutations from the population.
Aggression
Although strong and powerful, the mountain gorillas are generally gentle and very shy.[20] Severe aggression is rare in stable groups, but when two mountain gorilla groups meet, the two silverbacks can sometimes engage in a fight to the death, using their canines to cause deep, gaping injuries.[17] For this reason, conflicts are most often resolved by displays and other threat behaviors that are intended to intimidate without becoming physical. The ritualized charge display is unique to gorillas. The entire sequence has nine steps: (1) progressively quickening hooting, (2) symbolic feeding, (3) rising bipedally, (4) throwing vegetation, (5) chest-beating with cupped hands, (6) one leg kick, (7) sideways running four-legged, (8) slapping and tearing vegetation, and (9) thumping the ground with palms .[25] Jill Donisthorpe stated that a male charged at her twice. In both cases the gorilla turned away, when she stood her ground.[26]Affiliation
Young gorilla 2-3 years old
Vocalization
Twenty-five distinct vocalizations are recognized, many of which are used primarily for group communication within dense vegetation. Sounds classified as grunts and barks are heard most frequently while traveling, and indicate the whereabouts of individual group members.[27] They may also be used during social interactions when discipline is required. Screams and roars signal alarm or warning, and are produced most often by silverbacks. Deep, rumbling belches suggest contentment and are heard frequently during feeding and resting periods. They are the most common form of intragroup communication.[17]Fears
For reasons unknown, mountain gorillas that have been studied appear to be naturally afraid of certain reptiles and insects. Infants, whose natural behavior is to chase anything that moves, will go out of their way to avoid chameleons and caterpillars. They are also afraid of water and will cross streams only if they can do so without getting wet, such as by crossing over fallen logs. The mountain gorilla's dislike of rain has been observed and noted, as well.[28]Research
"The Old Man of Mikeno", bronze Bust of a mountain gorilla by Carl Akeley
George Schaller began his 20-month observation of the mountain gorillas in 1959, subsequently publishing two books: The Mountain Gorilla and The Year of the Gorilla. Little was known about the life of the mountain gorilla before his research, which described its social organization, life history, and ecology.[29] Following Schaller, Dian Fossey began what would become an 18-year study in 1967. Fossey made new observations, completed the first accurate census, and established active conservation practices, such as anti-poaching patrols.[17] The Digit Fund, which Fossey started, continued her work and was later renamed the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International. The Fund's Karisoke Research Center monitors and protects the mountain gorillas of the Virungas. Close monitoring and research of the Bwindi mountain gorillas began in the 1990s.[30]
Conservation
Population size and growth rates
Conservation efforts have led to an increase in overall population of the mountain gorilla (Gorilla beringei beringei) in the Virungas and at Bwindi. The overall population is now believed to be at least 880 individuals.[31] Three more – infants who suffered a traumatic poaching experience, injuries from snares, and/or losing their mothers in brutal killings – are currently in care of the Senkwekwe Centre orphanage in the DR of Congo.[32]In December 2010 the official website of Virunga National Park announced that "the number of mountain gorillas living in the tri-national forested area of which Virunga forms a part, has increased by 26.3% over the last seven years - an average growth rate of 3.7% per annum."[33] The 2010 census estimated that 480 mountain gorillas inhabited the region. The 2003 census had estimated the Virunga gorilla population to be 380 individuals; which represented a 17% increase in the total population since 1989 when there were 320 individuals.[34] The population has almost doubled since its lowest point in 1981, when a census estimated that only 254 gorillas remained.[35]
The 2006 census at Bwindi indicated a population of 340 gorillas, representing a 6% increase in total population size since 2002 and a 12% increase from 320 individuals in 1997.[36] All of those estimates were based on traditional census methods using dung samples collected at night nests. Conversely, genetic analyses of the entire population during the 2006 census indicated there were only approximately 300 individuals in Bwindi.[2] The discrepancy highlights the difficulty in using imprecise census data to estimate population growth.
In both Bwindi and the Virungas, groups of gorillas that were habituated for research and ecotourism have higher growth rates than unhabituated gorillas, according to computer modeling of their population dynamics.[30][37] Habituation means that through repeated, neutral contact with humans, gorillas exhibit normal behavior when people are in proximity. Habituated gorillas are more closely guarded by field staff and they receive veterinary treatment for snares, respiratory disease, and other life-threatening conditions.[37] Nonetheless, researchers recommended that some gorillas remain unhabituated as a bet-hedging strategy against the risk of human pathogens being transmitted throughout the population.[37]
Despite their recent population growth, the mountain gorilla remains threatened. As of 2008, mountain gorillas were listed as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List and are dependent on conservation efforts to survive.[2] In 2018, mountain gorillas were reclassified as endangered after a survey found the population had experienced around a 50% increase, from 680 in 2008 to around 1,000.[2][38]
| Threat | Effect on Gorilla Population | Conservation Efforts |
|---|---|---|
| Poaching |
|
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| Habitat loss |
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| Disease |
|
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| War and unrest |
|
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| Local communities |
|
Karisoke Research centre has:
|
Habitat loss: This is one of the most severe threats to gorilla populations. The forests where mountain gorillas live are surrounded by rapidly increasing human settlement. Through shifting (slash-and-burn) agriculture, pastoral expansion and logging, villages in forest zones cause fragmentation and degradation of habitat.[42] The late 1960s saw the Virunga Conservation Area (VCA) of Rwanda’s national park reduced by more than half of its original size to support the cultivation of Pyrethrum. This led to a massive reduction in mountain gorilla population numbers by the mid-1970s.[43] The resulting deforestation confines the gorillas to isolated deserts. Some groups may raid crops for food, creating further animosity and retaliation. The impact of habitat loss extends beyond the reduction of suitable living space for gorillas. As gorilla groups are increasingly geographically isolated from one another due to human settlements, the genetic diversity of each group is reduced.[44] Some signs of inbreeding are already appearing in younger gorillas, including webbed hands and feet.[45]
Disease: Despite the protection garnered from being located in national parks, the mountain gorilla is also at risk from people of a more well-meaning nature. Groups subjected to regular visits from tourists and locals are at a continued risk of disease cross-transmission (Lilly et al., 2002) – this is in spite of attempts to enforce a rule that humans and gorillas be separated by a distance of 7 metres at all times to prevent this.[37] With a similar genetic makeup to humans and an immune system that has not evolved to cope with human disease, this poses a serious conservation threat.[46] Indeed, according to some researchers, infectious diseases (predominantly respiratory) are responsible for about 20% of sudden deaths in mountain gorilla populations.[47] With the implementation of a successful ecotourism program in which human-gorilla interaction was minimised, during the period of 1989–2000 four sub-populations in Rwanda experienced an increase of 76%. By contrast, seven of the commonly visited sub-populations in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) saw a decline of almost 20% over only four years (1996–2000).[48] From this, we[who?] can conclude that the negative impacts of ecotourism on gorilla health can be minimised if proper management is undertaken.
The risk of disease transmission is not limited to those of a human origin; pathogens from domestic animals and livestock through contaminated water are also a concern.[49] Studies have found that water borne, gastrointestinal parasites such as Cryptosporidium sp., Microsporidia sp., and Giardia sp. are genetically identical when found in livestock, humans, and gorillas; particularly along theborder of the Bwindi Impenetrable Forest, Uganda.[50][51] Another example of human induced disease is Tuberculosis; Kabagambe et al.[39] found that as high as 11% of cattle in Rwanda suffered from this affliction.
War and civil unrest: Rwanda, Uganda and the Democratic Republic of Congo have been politically unstable and beleaguered by war and civil unrest over the last decades. Simulation modeling, Byers et al. (2003) has suggested that times of war and unrest have negative impacts on the habitat and populations of mountain gorillas.[52] For example, events such as 1994’s Rwanda genocide would take place approximately every 30 years, with each event lasting for 10 years. Due to the increase in human encounters, aggressive and passive alike, this would result in a rise in mortality rates and a decrease in reproductive success.[42] More direct impacts from conflict can also be seen. Kanyamibwa notes that there were reports that mines were placed along trails in the Volcanos National Park, and that many gorillas were killed as a result.[53] Pressure from habitat destruction in the form of logging also increased as refugees fled the cities and cut down trees for wood.[53] During the Rwandan genocide, some poaching activity was also linked to the general breakdown of law and order and lack of any ramifications.[54]
Conservation efforts
The main International Non-Government Organization involved in conservation of mountain gorillas is the International Gorilla Conservation Programme, which was established in 1991 as a joint effort of the African Wildlife Foundation, Fauna & Flora International and the World Wide Fund for Nature.[55] Conservation requires work at many levels, from local to international, and involves protection and law enforcement as well as research and education. Dian Fossey broke down conservation efforts into the following three categories:Active conservation includes frequent patrols in wildlife areas to destroy poacher equipment and weapons, firm and prompt law enforcement, census counts in regions of breeding and ranging concentration, and strong safeguards for the limited habitat the animals occupy."
Theoretical conservation seeks to encourage growth in tourism by improving existing roads that circle the mountains, by renovating the park headquarters and tourists' lodging, and by the habituation of gorillas near the park boundaries for tourists to visit and photograph."
Community-based conservation management involves biodiversity protection by, for, and with the local community[56] in practise this is applied in varying degrees. The process seeks equity between meeting the needs of the local population and preserving the protected areas and involves local people in decision making processes.
A collaborative management process has had some success in the Bwindi National Park. The forest was gazetted to National Park in 1991; this occurred with little community consultation and the new status prohibited local people from accessing resources within the park as well as reduced economic opportunities. Subsequently, a number of forest fires were deliberately lit and threats were made to the gorillas.[57] To counteract this, three schemes to provide benefits from existence of the forest communities and involve the local community in park management were developed. They included agreements allowing the controlled harvesting of resources in the park, receipt of some revenue from tourism and establishment of a trust fund partly for community development. Tension between people and park have been reduced[57] and now there is more willingness to take part in gorilla protection.[58] Surveys of community attitudes conducted by CARE show a steadily increasing proportion of the people in favour of the park. More than that there have been no cases of deliberate burning and the problem of snares in these areas has been reduced.[58] The introduction of ceremonies such as Kwita Izina (in 2005) has also had some impact in drawing attention to gorilla preservation and its importance to local communities.
While community-based conservation bears out individual analysis, there are significant overlaps between active and theoretical conservation and a discussion of the two as halves of a whole seems more constructive. For example, in 2002 Rwanda's national parks went through a restructuring process. The director of the IGCP, Eugene Rutagarama stated that "They got more rangers on better salaries, more radios, more patrol cars and better training in wildlife conservation. They also built more shelters in the park, from which rangers could protect the gorillas".[59] The funding for these types of improvements usually comes from tourism - in 2008, approximately 20 000 tourists visited gorilla populations in Rwanda, generating around $8 million in revenue for the parks.[37] In Uganda too, tourism is seen as a "high value activity that generates enough revenue to cover park management costs and contribute to the national budget of the Uganda Wildlife Authority."[60] Furthermore, tourist visits which are conducted by park rangers also allow censuses of gorilla sub-populations to be undertaken concurrently.[30]
In addition to tourism, other measures for conservation of the sub-population can be taken such as ensuring connecting corridors between isolated areas to make movement between them easier and safer.[61]
See also
References
- Harcourt, A; Curry-Lindahl, K (1979). "Conservation of the Mountain Gorilla and its Habitat in Rwanda". Environmental conservation. 6 (2): 143–147. doi:10.1017/s0376892900002666.
Other sources
- African Wildlife Foundation, awf.org
- Adams, D.; Carwardine, M. (1991). Last Chance to See. London: Pan Books. ISBN 0-330-32002-5.
- Groves, C. (2001). Primate Taxonomy. ISBN 1-56098-872-X.
- Harcourt, A. H. (1979). "Social relationships among adult female mountain gorillas". Animal Behaviour. 27 (1): 251–264. doi:10.1016/0003-3472(79)90145-3.
External links
 |
Wikispecies has information related to Gorilla beringei beringei |
 |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gorilla beringei beringei (Mountain gorilla). |
- Mountain gorilla (primate) at Encyclopædia Britannica
- Mountain Gorilla Veterinary Project, a NGO that provides medical care to the gorillas
- Conservation Through Public Health, an Ugandan NGO working for mountain gorilla conservation
- Official website for Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International
- National Geographic Channel
- Gorilla Saver
- African Wildlife Foundation, mountain gorillas
- ARKive images and movies of eastern gorilla
- The Official Website for Virunga National Park, DR Congo
- "Missing DR Congo gorillas 'dead'" by Mark Kinver, BBC News, 17 August 2007
- Official Baby Gorilla Naming Ceremony site- in Rwanda
- Endangered Gorillas
- The website about the Mountain Gorillas in Rwanda, with many pictures
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