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Monday, November 25, 2019

Heat Rises






Einstein-Rosen Bridge:

As a snakeskin in shed the bridge to the moon is possible with the following study and upon completion of all auto kinetic of incident to atmosphere the success would indeed be the first completed wormhole and completed by the U.S.A.!!



The effect:

A rocket shot on the same path as to push the air passage to the compass of the moon again and again would in tight and tidy produce the opening and there from produce the hose effect to direct passage of what I shall call the vacuum.

The atmosphere from our earth, our land in the U.S.A. would suck towards that rocket passage and the eventual breakthrough to moon’s ground itself.  This would then be the first air to ground oxygen produced (naturally) at an environmentally friendly and successful pace of the very first terraforming act to have the gravity needed for the following environment of gravity itself on our moon that would wherefrom be ownership in fact by not only first step and addition therefrom, it would be open for business and we in the U.S.A. would have not only the front door, we would have the threshold.

The wormhole would than is the airplane passage/tunnel that would gain to the actual roadway to successfully land the moon.  The work on the moon would than increase activity as per the first and second mission as the work for say CalTrans to build actual roads understanding that the first road to the moon is in literal, difficult to see and yet the gravity of such an idea would in process see its own way to its own finish line!!

To the moon!!

The snakeskin of an inside out backwards effect is the only way to explain currently the vacuum of the pealing of that space needed to explain that CalTrans is able to build actual bridges by such method from one end thereby leaving only the understanding that the hit to the moon would spread as fluid to the out layer of a balloon.  This is a helium effect that is also to be considered backwards.  



The question:

1.) How long would it take for atmosphere to develop?
2.) Is the height of that atmosphere important to the height of a man or the height of a building to successfully be capable to work the surface?
3.) Is it important to have a control gate to cutoff the tunnel to the moon to prevent more or less passage of oxygenated atmosphere to arrive or dissipate improving gravity or alleviating it?
4.) Transport of material is in detail of wide-body airplanes so does the wormhole needs to be pre-determined for space trajectory to wider than a rockets girth?
5.) Where would be the best location in the U.S.A. to fire repeated NASA rockets?


Much consideration about anyplace other than Florida for such activity is to be clearly held to the facts.  Florida has hurricane activity and that would produce a moon that would ice up and spin, this would be the end of the world as we know it.  This does not mean an apocalyptic moment, this means that our atmosphere and possible gravity would change swinging us to let’s say Australia and Australia to California.  The only know sign to such a swing would be the flushing of our commode.  These important considerations are worldwide, do we care?

Computer analysis required.

add.'1
 Description of the theory of the Einstein-Rosen bridge:

A wormhole (or Einstein–Rosen bridge or Einstein–Rosen wormhole) is a speculative structure linking disparate points in spacetime, and is based on a special solution of the Einstein field equations solved using a Jacobian matrix and determinant.

Wormhole - Wikipedia


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Wormhole


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For other uses, see Wormhole (disambiguation).
"Einstein-Rosen Bridge" redirects here. For the EP by Venetian Snares, see Einstein-Rosen Bridge (EP).
Part of a series of articles about
General relativity
Spacetime curvature schematic
A wormhole (or Einstein–Rosen bridge or Einstein–Rosen wormhole) is a speculative structure linking disparate points in spacetime, and is based on a special solution of the Einstein field equations solved using a Jacobian matrix and determinant. A wormhole can be visualized as a tunnel with two ends at separate points in spacetime (i.e., different locations, or different points in time, or both). More precisely it is a transcendental bijection of the spacetime continuum, an asymptotic projection of the Calabi–Yau manifold manifesting itself in Anti-de Sitter space.
Wormholes are consistent with the general theory of relativity, but whether wormholes actually exist remains to be seen. Many scientists postulate wormholes are merely a projection of the 4th dimension, analogous to how a 2D being could experience only part of a 3D object.[1]
A wormhole could connect extremely long distances such as a billion light years or more, short distances such as a few meters, different universes, or different points in time.[2]

Visualization

Wormhole visualized in 2D
For a simplified notion of a wormhole, space can be visualized as a two-dimensional (2D) surface. In this case, a wormhole would appear as a hole in that surface, lead into a 3D tube (the inside surface of a cylinder), then re-emerge at another location on the 2D surface with a hole similar to the entrance. An actual wormhole would be analogous to this, but with the spatial dimensions raised by one. For example, instead of circular holes on a 2D plane, the entry and exit points could be visualized as spheres in 3D space.
Another way to imagine wormholes is to take a sheet of paper and draw two somewhat distant points on one side of the paper. The sheet of paper represents a plane in the spacetime continuum, and the two points represent a distance to be traveled, however theoretically a wormhole could connect these two points by folding that plane so the points are touching. In this way it would be much easier to traverse the distance since the two points are now touching.

Terminology

In 1928, Hermann Weyl proposed a wormhole hypothesis of matter in connection with mass analysis of electromagnetic field energy;[3][4] however, he did not use the term "wormhole" (he spoke of "one-dimensional tubes" instead).[5]
American theoretical physicist John Archibald Wheeler (inspired by Weyl's work)[5] coined the term "wormhole" in a 1957 paper co-authored by Charles Misner:[6]
This analysis forces one to consider situations ... where there is a net flux of lines of force, through what topologists would call "a handle" of the multiply-connected space, and what physicists might perhaps be excused for more vividly terming a "wormhole".
— Charles Misner and John Wheeler in Annals of Physics

Modern definitions

Wormholes have been defined both geometrically and topologically.[further explanation needed] From a topological point of view, an intra-universe wormhole (a wormhole between two points in the same universe) is a compact region of spacetime whose boundary is topologically trivial, but whose interior is not simply connected. Formalizing this idea leads to definitions such as the following, taken from Matt Visser's Lorentzian Wormholes (1996).[7][page needed]
If a Minkowski spacetime contains a compact region Ω, and if the topology of Ω is of the form Ω ~ R × Σ, where Σ is a three-manifold of the nontrivial topology, whose boundary has topology of the form ∂Σ ~ S2, and if, furthermore, the hypersurfaces Σ are all spacelike, then the region Ω contains a quasipermanent intrauniverse wormhole.
Geometrically, wormholes can be described as regions of spacetime that constrain the incremental deformation of closed surfaces. For example, in Enrico Rodrigo's The Physics of Stargates, a wormhole is defined informally as:
a region of spacetime containing a "world tube" (the time evolution of a closed surface) that cannot be continuously deformed (shrunk) to a world line (the time evolution of a point).

Development

"Embedding diagram" of a Schwarzschild wormhole

Schwarzschild wormholes

The equations of the theory of general relativity have valid solutions that contain wormholes. The first type of wormhole solution discovered was the Schwarzschild wormhole,[8] which would be present in the Schwarzschild metric describing an eternal black hole, but it was found that it would collapse too quickly for anything to cross from one end to the other. Wormholes that could be crossed in both directions, known as traversable wormholes, would be possible only if exotic matter with negative energy density could be used to stabilize them.[9]
Schwarzschild wormholes, also known as Einstein–Rosen bridges[8] (named after Albert Einstein and Nathan Rosen),[10] are connections between areas of space that can be modeled as vacuum solutions to the Einstein field equations, and that are now understood to be intrinsic parts of the maximally extended version of the Schwarzschild metric describing an eternal black hole with no charge and no rotation. Here, "maximally extended" refers to the idea that the spacetime should not have any "edges": it should be possible to continue this path arbitrarily far into the particle's future or past for any possible trajectory of a free-falling particle (following a geodesic in the spacetime).
In order to satisfy this requirement, it turns out that in addition to the black hole interior region that particles enter when they fall through the event horizon from the outside, there must be a separate white hole interior region that allows us to extrapolate the trajectories of particles that an outside observer sees rising up away from the event horizon. And just as there are two separate interior regions of the maximally extended spacetime, there are also two separate exterior regions, sometimes called two different "universes", with the second universe allowing us to extrapolate some possible particle trajectories in the two interior regions. This means that the interior black hole region can contain a mix of particles that fell in from either universe (and thus an observer who fell in from one universe might be able to see light that fell in from the other one), and likewise particles from the interior white hole region can escape into either universe. All four regions can be seen in a spacetime diagram that uses Kruskal–Szekeres coordinates.
In this spacetime, it is possible to come up with coordinate systems such that if a hypersurface of constant time (a set of points that all have the same time coordinate, such that every point on the surface has a space-like separation, giving what is called a 'space-like surface') is picked and an "embedding diagram" drawn depicting the curvature of space at that time, the embedding diagram will look like a tube connecting the two exterior regions, known as an "Einstein–Rosen bridge". Note that the Schwarzschild metric describes an idealized black hole that exists eternally from the perspective of external observers; a more realistic black hole that forms at some particular time from a collapsing star would require a different metric. When the infalling stellar matter is added to a diagram of a black hole's history, it removes the part of the diagram corresponding to the white hole interior region, along with the part of the diagram corresponding to the other universe.[11]
The Einstein–Rosen bridge was discovered by Ludwig Flamm in 1916,[12] a few months after Schwarzschild published his solution, and was rediscovered by Albert Einstein and his colleague Nathan Rosen, who published their result in 1935.[10][13] However, in 1962, John Archibald Wheeler and Robert W. Fuller published a paper[14] showing that this type of wormhole is unstable if it connects two parts of the same universe, and that it will pinch off too quickly for light (or any particle moving slower than light) that falls in from one exterior region to make it to the other exterior region.
According to general relativity, the gravitational collapse of a sufficiently compact mass forms a singular Schwarzschild black hole. In the Einstein–Cartan–Sciama–Kibble theory of gravity, however, it forms a regular Einstein–Rosen bridge. This theory extends general relativity by removing a constraint of the symmetry of the affine connection and regarding its antisymmetric part, the torsion tensor, as a dynamical variable. Torsion naturally accounts for the quantum-mechanical, intrinsic angular momentum (spin) of matter. The minimal coupling between torsion and Dirac spinors generates a repulsive spin–spin interaction that is significant in fermionic matter at extremely high densities. Such an interaction prevents the formation of a gravitational singularity.[clarification needed] Instead, the collapsing matter reaches an enormous but finite density and rebounds, forming the other side of the bridge.[15]
Although Schwarzschild wormholes are not traversable in both directions, their existence inspired Kip Thorne to imagine traversable wormholes created by holding the "throat" of a Schwarzschild wormhole open with exotic matter (material that has negative mass/energy).
Other non-traversable wormholes include Lorentzian wormholes (first proposed by John Archibald Wheeler in 1957), wormholes creating a spacetime foam in a general relativistic spacetime manifold depicted by a Lorentzian manifold,[16] and Euclidean wormholes (named after Euclidean manifold, a structure of Riemannian manifold).[17]

Traversable wormholes

The Casimir effect shows that quantum field theory allows the energy density in certain regions of space to be negative relative to the ordinary matter vacuum energy, and it has been shown theoretically that quantum field theory allows states where energy can be arbitrarily negative at a given point.[18] Many physicists, such as Stephen Hawking,[19] Kip Thorne,[20] and others,[21][22][23] argued that such effects might make it possible to stabilize a traversable wormhole.[24][25] The only known natural process that is theoretically predicted to form a wormhole in the context of general relativity and quantum mechanics was put forth by Leonard Susskind in his ER=EPR conjecture. The quantum foam hypothesis is sometimes used to suggest that tiny wormholes might appear and disappear spontaneously at the Planck scale,[26]:494–496[27] and stable versions of such wormholes have been suggested as dark matter candidates.[28][29] It has also been proposed that, if a tiny wormhole held open by a negative mass cosmic string had appeared around the time of the Big Bang, it could have been inflated to macroscopic size by cosmic inflation.[30]
Image of a simulated traversable wormhole that connects the square in front of the physical institutes of University of Tübingen with the sand dunes near Boulogne sur Mer in the north of France. The image is calculated with 4D raytracing in a Morris–Thorne wormhole metric, but the gravitational effects on the wavelength of light have not been simulated.[31]
Lorentzian traversable wormholes would allow travel in both directions from one part of the universe to another part of that same universe very quickly or would allow travel from one universe to another. The possibility of traversable wormholes in general relativity was first demonstrated in a 1973 paper by Homer Ellis[32] and independently in a 1973 paper by K. A. Bronnikov.[33] Ellis analyzed the topology and the geodesics of the Ellis drainhole, showing it to be geodesically complete, horizonless, singularity-free, and fully traversable in both directions. The drainhole is a solution manifold of Einstein's field equations for a vacuum space-time, modified by inclusion of a scalar field minimally coupled to the Ricci tensor with antiorthodox polarity (negative instead of positive). (Ellis specifically rejected referring to the scalar field as 'exotic' because of the antiorthodox coupling, finding arguments for doing so unpersuasive.) The solution depends on two parameters: m, which fixes the strength of its gravitational field, and n, which determines the curvature of its spatial cross sections. When m is set equal to 0, the drainhole's gravitational field vanishes. What is left is the Ellis wormhole, a nongravitating, purely geometric, traversable wormhole. Kip Thorne and his graduate student Mike Morris, unaware of the 1973 papers by Ellis and Bronnikov, manufactured, and in 1988 published, a duplicate of the Ellis wormhole for use as a tool for teaching general relativity. For this reason, the type of traversable wormhole they proposed, held open by a spherical shell of exotic matter, was from 1988 to 2015 referred to in the literature as a Morris–Thorne wormhole. Later, other types of traversable wormholes were discovered as allowable solutions to the equations of general relativity, including a variety analyzed in a 1989 paper by Matt Visser, in which a path through the wormhole can be made where the traversing path does not pass through a region of exotic matter. However, in the pure Gauss–Bonnet gravity (a modification to general relativity involving extra spatial dimensions which is sometimes studied in the context of brane cosmology) exotic matter is not needed in order for wormholes to exist—they can exist even with no matter.[34] A type held open by negative mass cosmic strings was put forth by Visser in collaboration with Cramer et al.,[30] in which it was proposed that such wormholes could have been naturally created in the early universe.
Wormholes connect two points in spacetime, which means that they would in principle allow travel in time, as well as in space. In 1988, Morris, Thorne and Yurtsever worked out how to convert a wormhole traversing space into one traversing time by accelerating one of its two mouths.[20] However, according to general relativity, it would not be possible to use a wormhole to travel back to a time earlier than when the wormhole was first converted into a time "machine". Until this time it could not have been noticed or have been used.[26]:504

Raychaudhuri's theorem and exotic matter

To see why exotic matter is required, consider an incoming light front traveling along geodesics, which then crosses the wormhole and re-expands on the other side. The expansion goes from negative to positive. As the wormhole neck is of finite size, we would not expect caustics to develop, at least within the vicinity of the neck. According to the optical Raychaudhuri's theorem, this requires a violation of the averaged null energy condition. Quantum effects such as the Casimir effect cannot violate the averaged null energy condition in any neighborhood of space with zero curvature,[35] but calculations in semiclassical gravity suggest that quantum effects may be able to violate this condition in curved spacetime.[36] Although it was hoped recently that quantum effects could not violate an achronal version of the averaged null energy condition,[37] violations have nevertheless been found,[38] so it remains an open possibility that quantum effects might be used to support a wormhole.

Modified general relativity

In some hypotheses where general relativity is modified, it is possible to have a wormhole that does not collapse without having to resort to exotic matter. For example, this is possible with R2 gravity, a form of f(R) gravity.[39]

Faster-than-light travel

Further information: Faster-than-light
Wormhole travel as envisioned by Les Bossinas for NASA Digital art by Les Bossinas (Cortez III Service Corp.), 1998
Wormhole travel as envisioned by Les Bossinas for NASA
The impossibility of faster-than-light relative speed only applies locally. Wormholes might allow effective superluminal (faster-than-light) travel by ensuring that the speed of light is not exceeded locally at any time. While traveling through a wormhole, subluminal (slower-than-light) speeds are used. If two points are connected by a wormhole whose length is shorter than the distance between them outside the wormhole, the time taken to traverse it could be less than the time it would take a light beam to make the journey if it took a path through the space outside the wormhole. However, a light beam traveling through the same wormhole would beat the traveler.

Time travel

Main article: Time travel
If traversable wormholes exist, they could allow time travel.[20] A proposed time-travel machine using a traversable wormhole would hypothetically work in the following way: One end of the wormhole is accelerated to some significant fraction of the speed of light, perhaps with some advanced propulsion system, and then brought back to the point of origin. Alternatively, another way is to take one entrance of the wormhole and move it to within the gravitational field of an object that has higher gravity than the other entrance, and then return it to a position near the other entrance. For both these methods, time dilation causes the end of the wormhole that has been moved to have aged less, or become "younger", than the stationary end as seen by an external observer; however, time connects differently through the wormhole than outside it, so that synchronized clocks at either end of the wormhole will always remain synchronized as seen by an observer passing through the wormhole, no matter how the two ends move around.[26]:502 This means that an observer entering the "younger" end would exit the "older" end at a time when it was the same age as the "younger" end, effectively going back in time as seen by an observer from the outside. One significant limitation of such a time machine is that it is only possible to go as far back in time as the initial creation of the machine;[26]:503 It is more of a path through time rather than it is a device that itself moves through time, and it would not allow the technology itself to be moved backward in time.[40][41]
According to current theories on the nature of wormholes, construction of a traversable wormhole would require the existence of a substance with negative energy, often referred to as "exotic matter". More technically, the wormhole spacetime requires a distribution of energy that violates various energy conditions, such as the null energy condition along with the weak, strong, and dominant energy conditions. However, it is known that quantum effects can lead to small measurable violations of the null energy condition,[7]:101 and many physicists believe that the required negative energy may actually be possible due to the Casimir effect in quantum physics.[42] Although early calculations suggested a very large amount of negative energy would be required, later calculations showed that the amount of negative energy can be made arbitrarily small.[43]
In 1993, Matt Visser argued that the two mouths of a wormhole with such an induced clock difference could not be brought together without inducing quantum field and gravitational effects that would either make the wormhole collapse or the two mouths repel each other,[44] or otherwise prevent information from passing through the wormhole.[45] Because of this, the two mouths could not be brought close enough for causality violation to take place. However, in a 1997 paper, Visser hypothesized that a complex "Roman ring" (named after Tom Roman) configuration of an N number of wormholes arranged in a symmetric polygon could still act as a time machine, although he concludes that this is more likely a flaw in classical quantum gravity theory rather than proof that causality violation is possible.[46]

Interuniversal travel

A possible resolution to the paradoxes resulting from wormhole-enabled time travel rests on the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics.
In 1991 David Deutsch showed that quantum theory is fully consistent (in the sense that the so-called density matrix can be made free of discontinuities) in spacetimes with closed timelike curves.[47] However, later it was shown that such model of closed timelike curve can have internal inconsistencies as it will lead to strange phenomena like distinguishing non-orthogonal quantum states and distinguishing proper and improper mixture.[48][49] Accordingly, the destructive positive feedback loop of virtual particles circulating through a wormhole time machine, a result indicated by semi-classical calculations, is averted. A particle returning from the future does not return to its universe of origination but to a parallel universe. This suggests that a wormhole time machine with an exceedingly short time jump is a theoretical bridge between contemporaneous parallel universes.[50]
Because a wormhole time-machine introduces a type of nonlinearity into quantum theory, this sort of communication between parallel universes is consistent with Joseph Polchinski's proposal of an Everett phone[51] (named after Hugh Everett) in Steven Weinberg's formulation of nonlinear quantum mechanics.[52]
The possibility of communication between parallel universes has been dubbed interuniversal travel.[53]

Metrics

Theories of wormhole metrics describe the spacetime geometry of a wormhole and serve as theoretical models for time travel. An example of a (traversable) wormhole metric is the following:[54]
{\displaystyle ds^{2}=-c^{2}dt^{2}+dl^{2}+(k^{2}+l^{2})(d\theta ^{2}+\sin ^{2}\theta \,d\phi ^{2}),}
first presented by Ellis (see Ellis wormhole) as a special case of the Ellis drainhole.
One type of non-traversable wormhole metric is the Schwarzschild solution (see the first diagram):
ds^{2}=-c^{2}\left(1-{\frac {2GM}{rc^{2}}}\right)dt^{2}+{\frac {dr^{2}}{1-{\frac {2GM}{rc^{2}}}}}+r^{2}(d\theta ^{2}+\sin ^{2}\theta \,d\phi ^{2}).
The original Einstein–Rosen bridge was described in an article published in July 1935.[55][56]
For the Schwarzschild spherically symmetric static solution
{\displaystyle ds^{2}=-{\frac {1}{1-{\frac {2m}{r}}}}dr^{2}-r^{2}(d\theta ^{2}+\sin ^{2}\theta \,d\phi ^{2})+\left(1-{\frac {2m}{r}}\right)dt^{2},}
where ds is the proper time and c=1.
If one replaces r with u according to {\displaystyle u^{2}=r-2m}
{\displaystyle ds^{2}=-4(u^{2}+2m)du^{2}-(u^{2}+2m)^{2}(d\theta ^{2}+\sin ^{2}\theta \,d\phi ^{2})+{\frac {u^{2}}{u^{2}+2m}}dt^{2}}
The four-dimensional space is described mathematically by two congruent parts or "sheets", corresponding to u>0 and {\displaystyle u<0}, which are joined by a hyperplane r = 2m or {\displaystyle u=0} in which g vanishes. We call such a connection between the two sheets a "bridge".
— A. Einstein, N. Rosen, "The Particle Problem in the General Theory of Relativity"
For the combined field, gravity and electricity, Einstein and Rosen derived the following Schwarzschild static spherically symmetric solution
{\displaystyle \phi _{1}=\phi _{2}=\phi _{3}=0,\phi _{4}={\frac {\epsilon }{4}},}
{\displaystyle ds^{2}=-{\frac {1}{\left(1-{\frac {2m}{r}}-{\frac {\epsilon ^{2}}{2r^{2}}}\right)}}dr^{2}-r^{2}(d\theta ^{2}+\sin ^{2}\theta \,d\phi ^{2})+\left(1-{\frac {2m}{r}}-{\frac {\epsilon ^{2}}{2r^{2}}}\right)dt^{2},}
where \epsilon is the electric charge.
The field equations without denominators in the case when m=0 can be written
{\displaystyle \phi _{\mu \nu }=\phi _{\mu ,\nu }-\phi _{\nu ,\mu }}
{\displaystyle g^{2}\phi _{\mu \nu ;\sigma }g^{\nu \sigma }=0}
{\displaystyle g^{2}(R_{ik}+\phi _{i\alpha }\phi _{k}^{\alpha }-{\frac {1}{4}}g_{ik}\phi _{\alpha \beta }\phi ^{ab})=0}
In order to eliminate singularities, if one replaces r by u according to the equation:
{\displaystyle u^{2}=r^{2}-{\frac {\epsilon ^{2}}{2}}}
and with m=0 one obtains[57][58]
{\displaystyle \phi _{1}=\phi _{2}=\phi _{3}=0} and {\displaystyle \phi _{4}={\frac {\epsilon }{\left(u^{2}+{\frac {\epsilon ^{2}}{2}}\right)^{1/2}}}}
{\displaystyle ds^{2}=-du^{2}-(u^{2}+{\frac {\epsilon ^{2}}{2}})(d\theta ^{2}+\sin ^{2}\theta \,d\phi ^{2})+({\frac {2u^{2}}{2u^{2}+\epsilon ^{2}}})dt^{2}}
The solution is free from singularities for all finite points in the space of the two sheets
— A. Einstein, N. Rosen, "The Particle Problem in the General Theory of Relativity"


In fiction

Main article: Wormholes in fiction
Wormholes are a common element in science fiction because they allow interstellar, intergalactic, and sometimes even interuniversal travel within human lifetime scales. In fiction, wormholes have also served as a method for time travel.

See also

Notes




  • Choi, Charles Q. (2013-12-03). "Spooky physics phenomenon may link universe's wormholes". NBC News. Retrieved 2019-07-30.

    1. "Magnetic wormhole created for first time".

    References

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  • Other computer-rendered images and animations of traversable wormholes can be seen on this page by the creator of the image in the article, and this page has additional renderings.

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    add.'2

    Terraforming

    From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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    Not to be confused with worldbuilding, the process of developing an imaginary world.
    This article is about the hypothetical planetary engineering process. For other uses, see Terraforming (disambiguation).
    "Terraformers" redirects here. For the manga and anime franchise, see Terra Formars.
    Mars Ice Home concept
    Space colonization
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    An artist's conception shows a terraformed Mars in four stages of development.
    Terraforming or terraformation (literally, "Earth-shaping") of a planet, moon, or other body is the hypothetical process of deliberately modifying its atmosphere, temperature, surface topography or ecology to be similar to the environment of Earth to make it habitable by Earth-like life.
    The concept of terraforming developed from both science fiction and actual science. The term was coined by Jack Williamson in a science-fiction short story ("Collision Orbit") published during 1942 in Astounding Science Fiction,[1] but the concept may pre-date this work.
    Even if the environment of a planet could be altered deliberately, the feasibility of creating an unconstrained planetary environment that mimics Earth on another planet has yet to be verified. Mars is usually considered to be the most likely candidate for terraforming. Much study has been done concerning the possibility of heating the planet and altering its atmosphere, and NASA has even hosted debates on the subject. Several potential methods of altering the climate of Mars may fall within humanity's technological capabilities, but at present the economic resources required to do so are far beyond that which any government or society is willing to allocate to it. The long timescales and practicality of terraforming are the subject of debate. Other unanswered questions relate to the ethics, logistics, economics, politics, and methodology of altering the environment of an extraterrestrial world.

    History of scholarly study

    The astronomer Carl Sagan proposed the planetary engineering of Venus in an article published in the journal Science in 1961.[2] Sagan imagined seeding the atmosphere of Venus with algae, which would convert water, nitrogen and carbon dioxide into organic compounds. As this process removed carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, the greenhouse effect would be reduced until surface temperatures dropped to "comfortable" levels. The resulting carbon, Sagan supposed, would be incinerated by the high surface temperatures of Venus, and thus be sequestered in the form of "graphite or some involatile form of carbon" on the planet's surface.[3] However, later discoveries about the conditions on Venus made this particular approach impossible. One problem is that the clouds of Venus are composed of a highly concentrated sulfuric acid solution. Even if atmospheric algae could thrive in the hostile environment of Venus's upper atmosphere, an even more insurmountable problem is that its atmosphere is simply far too thick—the high atmospheric pressure would result in an "atmosphere of nearly pure molecular oxygen" and cause the planet's surface to be thickly covered in fine graphite powder.[3] This volatile combination could not be sustained through time. Any carbon that was fixed in organic form would be liberated as carbon dioxide again through combustion, "short-circuiting" the terraforming process.[3]
    Sagan also visualized making Mars habitable for human life in "Planetary Engineering on Mars" (1973), an article published in the journal Icarus.[4] Three years later, NASA addressed the issue of planetary engineering officially in a study, but used the term "planetary ecosynthesis" instead.[5] The study concluded that it was possible for Mars to support life and be made into a habitable planet. The first conference session on terraforming, then referred to as "Planetary Modeling", was organized that same year.
    In March 1979, NASA engineer and author James Oberg organized the First Terraforming Colloquium, a special session at the Lunar and Planetary Science Conference in Houston. Oberg popularized the terraforming concepts discussed at the colloquium to the general public in his book New Earths (1981).[6] Not until 1982 was the word terraforming used in the title of a published journal article. Planetologist Christopher McKay wrote "Terraforming Mars", a paper for the Journal of the British Interplanetary Society.[7] The paper discussed the prospects of a self-regulating Martian biosphere, and McKay's use of the word has since become the preferred term. In 1984, James Lovelock and Michael Allaby published The Greening of Mars.[8] Lovelock's book was one of the first to describe a novel method of warming Mars, where chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are added to the atmosphere.
    Motivated by Lovelock's book, biophysicist Robert Haynes worked behind the scenes[citation needed] to promote terraforming, and contributed the neologism Ecopoiesis,[9] forming the word from the Greek οἶκος, oikos, "house",[10] and ποίησις, poiesis, "production".[11] Ecopoiesis refers to the origin of an ecosystem. In the context of space exploration, Haynes describes ecopoiesis as the "fabrication of a sustainable ecosystem on a currently lifeless, sterile planet". Fogg defines ecopoiesis as a type of planetary engineering and is one of the first stages of terraformation. This primary stage of ecosystem creation is usually restricted to the initial seeding of microbial life.[12] A 2019 opinion piece by Lopez, Peixoto and Rosado has reintroduced microbiology as a necessary component of any possible colonization strategy based on the principles of microbial symbiosis and their beneficial ecosystem services.[13] As conditions approach that of Earth, plant life could be brought in, and this will accelerate the production of oxygen, theoretically making the planet eventually able to support animal life.

    Aspects and definitions

    In 1985, Martyn J. Fogg started publishing several articles on terraforming. He also served as editor for a full issue on terraforming for the Journal of the British Interplanetary Society in 1992. In his book Terraforming: Engineering Planetary Environments (1995), Fogg proposed the following definitions for different aspects related to terraforming:[12]
    • Planetary engineering: the application of technology for the purpose of influencing the global properties of a planet.
    • Geoengineering: planetary engineering applied specifically to Earth. It includes only those macroengineering concepts that deal with the alteration of some global parameter, such as the greenhouse effect, atmospheric composition, insolation or impact flux.
    • Terraforming: a process of planetary engineering, specifically directed at enhancing the capacity of an extraterrestrial planetary environment to support life as we know it. The ultimate achievement in terraforming would be to create an open planetary ecosystem emulating all the functions of the biosphere of Earth, one that would be fully habitable for human beings.
    Fogg also devised definitions for candidate planets of varying degrees of human compatibility:[14]
    • Habitable Planet (HP): A world with an environment sufficiently similar to Earth as to allow comfortable and free human habitation.
    • Biocompatible Planet (BP): A planet possessing the necessary physical parameters for life to flourish on its surface. If initially lifeless, then such a world could host a biosphere of considerable complexity without the need for terraforming.
    • Easily Terraformable Planet (ETP): A planet that might be rendered biocompatible, or possibly habitable, and maintained so by modest planetary engineering techniques and with the limited resources of a starship or robot precursor mission.
    Fogg suggests that Mars was a biologically compatible planet in its youth, but is not now in any of these three categories, because it can only be terraformed with greater difficulty.[15]

    Habitability requirements

    Main article: Planetary habitability
    An absolute requirement for life is an energy source, but the notion of planetary habitability implies that many other geophysical, geochemical, and astrophysical criteria must be met before the surface of an astronomical body is able to support life. Of particular interest is the set of factors that has sustained complex, multicellular animals in addition to simpler organisms on Earth. Research and theory in this regard is a component of planetary science and the emerging discipline of astrobiology.
    In its astrobiology roadmap, NASA has defined the principal habitability criteria as "extended regions of liquid water, conditions favorable for the assembly of complex organic molecules, and energy sources to sustain metabolism."[16]

    Preliminary stages

    Once conditions become more suitable for life of the introduced species, the importation of microbial life could begin.[12] As conditions approach that of Earth, plant life could also be brought in. This would accelerate the production of oxygen, which theoretically would make the planet eventually able to support animal life.

    Prospective targets

    Mars

    Main article: Terraforming of Mars
    Artist's conception of a terraformed Mars
    In many respects, Mars is the most Earth-like planet in the Solar System.[17][18] It is thought that Mars once had a more Earth-like environment early in its history, with a thicker atmosphere and abundant water that was lost over the course of hundreds of millions of years.[19]
    The exact mechanism of this loss is still unclear, though three mechanisms in particular seem likely: First, whenever surface water is present, carbon dioxide (CO
    2    ) reacts with rocks to form carbonates, thus drawing atmosphere off and binding it to the planetary surface. On Earth, this process is counteracted when plate tectonics works to cause volcanic eruptions that vent carbon dioxide back to the atmosphere. On Mars, the lack of such tectonic activity worked to prevent the recycling of gases locked up in sediments.[20]
    Second, the lack of a magnetosphere around Mars may have allowed the solar wind to gradually erode the atmosphere.[20] Convection within the core of Mars, which is made mostly of iron,[21] originally generated a magnetic field. However the dynamo ceased to function long ago,[22] and the magnetic field of Mars has largely disappeared, probably due to "... loss of core heat, solidification of most of the core, and/or changes in the mantle convection regime."[23] Results from the NASA MAVEN mission show that the atmosphere is removed primarily due to Coronal Mass Ejection events, where outbursts of high-velocity protons from the sun impact the atmosphere. Mars does still retain a limited magnetosphere that covers approximately 40% of its surface. Rather than uniformly covering and protecting the atmosphere from solar wind, however, the magnetic field takes the form of a collection of smaller, umbrella-shaped fields, mainly clustered together around the planet's southern hemisphere.[24]
    Finally, between approximately 4.1 and 3.8 billion years ago, asteroid impacts during the Late Heavy Bombardment caused significant changes to the surface environment of objects in the Solar System. The low gravity of Mars suggests that these impacts could have ejected much of the Martian atmosphere into deep space.[25]
    Terraforming Mars would entail two major interlaced changes: building the atmosphere and heating it.[26] A thicker atmosphere of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide would trap incoming solar radiation. Because the raised temperature would add greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, the two processes would augment each other.[27] Carbon dioxide alone would not suffice to sustain a temperature above the freezing point of water, so a mixture of specialized greenhouse molecules might be manufactured.[28]

    Venus

    Main article: Terraforming of Venus
    Artist's conception of a terraformed Venus
    Terraforming Venus requires two major changes; removing most of the planet's dense 9 MPa (1,300 psi) carbon dioxide atmosphere and reducing the planet's 450 °C (842 °F) surface temperature.[29][30] These goals are closely interrelated, because Venus's extreme temperature is thought to be due to the greenhouse effect caused by its dense atmosphere. Sequestering the atmospheric carbon would likely solve the temperature problem as well.


    The Moon

    Artist's conception of a terraformed Moon of the Earth
    Although the gravity on Earth's moon is too low to hold an atmosphere for geological spans of time, if given an atmosphere, it would retain the atmosphere for spans of time that are long compared to human lifespans.[31] Landis[31] and others[32][33] have thus proposed that it could be feasible to terraform the moon, although not all agree with that proposal.[34] Landis estimates that a 1 PSI atmosphere of pure oxygen on the moon would require on the order of two hundred trillion tons of oxygen, and suggests it could be produced by reducing the oxygen from an amount of lunar rock equivalent to a cube about fifty kilometers on an edge. Alternatively, he suggests that the water content of "fifty to a hundred comets" the size of Halley's comet would do the job, "assuming that the water doesn't splash away when the comets hit the moon."[31] Likewise, Benford calculates that terraforming the moon would require "about 100 comets the size of Halley's."[32]

    Earth

    It has been recently proposed that due to the effects of Climate change, an interventionist program might be designed to return Earth to its usual and more benign climate parameters. In order to achieve this, multiple solutions have been proposed, such as the management of solar radiation, the sequestration of carbon dioxide using geoengineering methods and the design and release of climate altering genetically engineered organisms.[35][36]

    Other bodies in the Solar System

    See also: Colonization of Mercury, Colonization of Ceres, Colonization of Callisto, Colonization of Europa, Colonization of Titan, Colonization of the outer Solar System, and Colonization of trans-Neptunian objects
    Other possible candidates for terraforming (possibly only partial or paraterraforming) include Titan, Callisto, Ganymede, Europa, and even Mercury, Saturn's moon Enceladus, and the dwarf planet Ceres.

    Other possibilities

    Biological terraforming

    See also: Interplanetary contamination
    Many proposals for planetary engineering involve the use of genetically engineered bacteria.[37][38]
    As synthetic biology matures over the coming decades it may become possible to build designer organisms from scratch that directly manufacture desired products efficiently.[39] Lisa Nip, Ph.D. candidate at the MIT Media Lab's Molecular Machines group, said that by synthetic biology, scientists could genetically engineer humans, plants and bacteria to create Earth-like conditions on another planet.[40][41]
    Gary King, microbiologist at Louisiana State University studying the most extreme organisms on Earth, notes that "synthetic biology has given us a remarkable toolkit that can be used to manufacture new kinds of organisms specially suited for the systems we want to plan for" and outlines the prospects for terraforming, saying "we'll want to investigate our chosen microbes, find the genes that code for the survival and terraforming properties that we want (like radiation and drought resistance), and then use that knowledge to genetically engineer specifically Martian-designed microbes". He sees the project's biggest bottleneck in the ability to genetically tweak and tailor the right microbes, estimating that this hurdle could take "a decade or more" to be solved. He also notes that it would be best to develop "not a single kind microbe but a suite of several that work together".[42]
    DARPA is researching using photosynthesizing plants, bacteria, and algae grown directly on the Mars surface that could warm up and thicken its atmosphere. In 2015 the agency and some of its research partners have created a software called DTA GView − a 'Google Maps of genomes', in which genomes of several organisms can be pulled up on the program to immediately show a list of known genes and where they are located in the genome. According to Alicia Jackson, deputy director of DARPA's Biological Technologies Office by this they have developed a "technological toolkit to transform not just hostile places here on Earth, but to go into space not just to visit, but to stay".[43][44][45][46]

    Paraterraforming

    Also known as the "worldhouse" concept, paraterraforming involves the construction of a habitable enclosure on a planet which encompasses most of the planet's usable area.[47] The enclosure would consist of a transparent roof held one or more kilometers above the surface, pressurized with a breathable atmosphere, and anchored with tension towers and cables at regular intervals. The worldhouse concept is similar to the concept of a domed habitat, but one which covers all (or most) of the planet.

    Adapting humans

    It has also been suggested that instead of or in addition to terraforming a hostile environment humans might adapt to these places by the use of genetic engineering, biotechnology and cybernetic enhancements.[48][49][50][51][52]

    Issues

    Ethical issues

    Main article: Ethics of terraforming
    There is a philosophical debate within biology and ecology as to whether terraforming other worlds is an ethical endeavor. From the point of view of a cosmocentric ethic, this involves balancing the need for the preservation of human life against the intrinsic value of existing planetary ecologies.[53]
    On the pro-terraforming side of the argument, there are those like Robert Zubrin, Martyn J. Fogg, Richard L. S. Taylor and the late Carl Sagan who believe that it is humanity's moral obligation to make other worlds suitable for life, as a continuation of the history of life transforming the environments around it on Earth.[54][55] They also point out that Earth would eventually be destroyed if nature takes its course, so that humanity faces a very long-term choice between terraforming other worlds or allowing all terrestrial life to become extinct. Terraforming totally barren planets, it is asserted, is not morally wrong as it does not affect any other life.
    The opposing argument posits that terraforming would be an unethical interference in nature, and that given humanity's past treatment of Earth, other planets may be better off without human interference. Still others strike a middle ground, such as Christopher McKay, who argues that terraforming is ethically sound only once we have completely assured that an alien planet does not harbor life of its own; but that if it does, we should not try to reshape it to our own use, but we should engineer its environment to artificially nurture the alien life and help it thrive and co-evolve, or even co-exist with humans.[56] Even this would be seen as a type of terraforming to the strictest of ecocentrists, who would say that all life has the right, in its home biosphere, to evolve without outside interference.

    Economic issues

    The initial cost of such projects as planetary terraforming would be gargantuan, and the infrastructure of such an enterprise would have to be built from scratch. Such technology is not yet developed, let alone financially feasible at the moment. John Hickman has pointed out that almost none of the current schemes for terraforming incorporate economic strategies, and most of their models and expectations seem highly optimistic.[57]

    Political issues

    Further information: Outer Space Treaty
    National pride, rivalries between nations, and the politics of public relations have in the past been the primary motivations for shaping space projects.[58][59] It is reasonable to assume that these factors would also be present in planetary terraforming efforts.

    In popular culture

    Main article: Terraforming in popular culture
    Terraforming is a common concept in science fiction, ranging from television, movies and novels to video games.

    See also

    References




  • "Science Fiction Citations: terraforming". Retrieved 2006-06-16.

    1. Thompson 2001 p. 108

    Notes

    External links

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  • Sagan, Carl (1961). "The Planet Venus". Science. 133 (3456): 849–58. Bibcode:1961Sci...133..849S. doi:10.1126/science.133.3456.849. PMID 17789744.

  • Sagan 1997, pp. 276–7.

  • Sagan, Carl (December 1973). "Planetary engineering on Mars". Icarus. 20 (4): 513–514. Bibcode:1973Icar...20..513S. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(73)90026-2.

  • Averner & MacElroy 1976, p. [page needed].

  • Oberg, James Edward (1981). New Earths: Restructuring Earth and Other Planets. Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.

  • McKay, Christopher P. (January 1982). "On Terraforming Mars". Extrapolation. 23 (4): 309–314. doi:10.3828/extr.1982.23.4.309.

  • Lovelock, James & Allaby, Michael (1984). The Greening of Mars.

  • Haynes, RH (1990), "Ecce Ecopoiesis: Playing God on Mars", in MacNiven, D. (1990-07-13), Moral Expertise: studies in practical and professional ethics, Routledge. pp. 161–163. ISBN 0-415-03576-7.

  • οἶκος. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.

  • ποίησις in Liddell and Scott.

  • Fogg, Martyn J. (1995). Terraforming: Engineering Planetary Environments. SAE International, Warrendale, PA.

  • Lopez, Jose V; Peixoto, Raquel S; Rosado, Alexandre S (22 August 2019). "Inevitable future: space colonization beyond Earth with microbes first". FEMS Microbiology Ecology. 95 (10). doi:10.1093/femsec/fiz127. PMC 6748721. PMID 31437273.

  • Fogg, 1996

  • 1960–, Fogg, Martyn J. (1995). Terraforming : engineering planetary environments. Society of Automotive Engineers. ISBN 1560916095. OCLC 32348444.

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  • Read and Lewis 2004, p.16

  • Kargel 2004, pp. 185–6.

  • Kargel 2004, 99ff

  • Forget, Costard & Lognonné 2007, pp. 80–2.

  • Dave Jacqué (2003-09-26). "APS X-rays reveal secrets of Mars' core". Argonne National Laboratory. Retrieved 2009-06-10.

  • Schubert, Turcotte & Olson 2001, p. 692

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  • Solar Wind, 2008

  • Forget, Costard & Lognonné 2007, pp. 80.

  • Faure & Mensing 2007, p. 252.

  • Zubrin, Robert; McKay, Christopher (1993). "Technological requirements for terraforming Mars". 29th Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit. doi:10.2514/6.1993-2005.

  • Gerstell, M. F.; Francisco, J. S.; Yung, Y. L.; Boxe, C.; Aaltonee, E. T. (27 February 2001). "Keeping Mars warm with new super greenhouse gases". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 98 (5): 2154–2157. doi:10.1073/pnas.051511598. PMC 30108. PMID 11226208.

  • Fogg, M. J. (1987). "The terraforming of Venus". Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. 40: 551. Bibcode:1987JBIS...40..551F.

  • Landis, Geoffrey (2011). "Terraforming Venus: A Challenging Project for Future Colonization". AIAA SPACE 2011 Conference & Exposition. doi:10.2514/6.2011-7215. ISBN 978-1-60086-953-2.

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  • Solé, Ricard V.; Montañez, Raúl; Duran-Nebreda, Salva; Rodriguez-Amor, Daniel; Vidiella, Blai; Sardanyés, Josep (4 July 2018). "Population dynamics of synthetic terraformation motifs". Royal Society Open Science. 5 (7): 180121. Bibcode:2018RSOS....580121S. doi:10.1098/rsos.180121. PMC 6083676. PMID 30109068.

  • Hiscox, Juliana A.; Thomas, David J. (October 1995). "Genetic modification and selection of microorganisms for growth on Mars". Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. 48 (10): 419–26. PMID 11541203.

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  • Taylor, 1992

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