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Easter Island
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Easter Island (Rapa Nui: Rapa Nui; Spanish: Isla de Pascua) is an island and special territory of Chile in the southeastern Pacific Ocean, at the southeasternmost point of the Polynesian Triangle in Oceania. The island is most famous for its nearly 1,000 extant monumental statues, called moai, which were created by the early Rapa Nui people. In 1995, UNESCO named Easter Island a World Heritage Site, with much of the island protected within Rapa Nui National Park.
Experts disagree on when the island's Polynesian
inhabitants first reached the island. Some believe that they arrived
around 800 CE, though a 2007 study found the time to be 1200 CE.[3][4] The inhabitants created a thriving and industrious culture, as evidenced by the island's numerous enormous stone moai and other artifacts. However, land clearing for cultivation and the introduction of the Polynesian rat led to gradual deforestation.[3]
By the time of European arrival in 1722, the island's population was
estimated to be 2,000 to 3,000. European diseases, Peruvian slave raiding expeditions in the 1860s, and emigration to other islands such as Tahiti further depleted the population, reducing it to a low of 111 native inhabitants in 1877.[5]
Chile annexed Easter Island in 1888. In 1966, the Rapa Nui were
granted Chilean citizenship. In 2007 the island gained the
constitutional status of "special territory" (Spanish: territorio especial). Administratively, it belongs to the Valparaíso Region, constituting a single commune of the Province Isla de Pascua.[6] The 2017 Chilean census registered 7,750 people on the island, of whom 3,512 (45%) considered themselves Rapa Nui.[7]
Easter Island is one of the most remote inhabited islands in the world.[8] The nearest inhabited land (around 50 residents in 2013) is Pitcairn Island, 2,075 kilometres (1,289 mi) away;[9] the nearest town with a population over 500 is Rikitea, on the island of Mangareva, 2,606 km (1,619 mi) away; the nearest continental point lies in central Chile, 3,512 km (2,182 mi) away.
Etymology
The name "Easter Island" was given by the island's first recorded European visitor, the Dutch explorer Jacob Roggeveen, who encountered it on Easter Sunday (5 April) in 1722, while searching for "Davis Land". Roggeveen named it Paasch-Eyland (18th-century Dutch for "Easter Island").[10][11] The island's official Spanish name, Isla de Pascua, also means "Easter Island".
The current Polynesian name of the island, Rapa Nui ("Big
Rapa"), was coined after the slave raids of the early 1860s, and refers
to the island's topographic resemblance to the island of Rapa in the Bass Islands of the Austral Islands group.[12] However, Norwegian ethnographer Thor Heyerdahl argued that Rapa was the original name of Easter Island and that Rapa Iti was named by refugees from there.[13]
The phrase Te pito o te henua has been said to be the original name of the island since French ethnologist Alphonse Pinart gave it the romantic translation "the Navel of the World" in his Voyage à l'Île de Pâques, published in 1877.[14] William Churchill (1912) inquired about the phrase and was told that there were three te pito o te henua,
these being the three capes (land's ends) of the island. The phrase
appears to have been used in the same sense as the designation of
"Land's End" at the tip of Cornwall. He was unable to elicit a Polynesian name for the island and concluded that there may not have been one.[15]
According to Barthel (1974), oral tradition has it that the island was first named Te pito o te kainga a Hau Maka, "The little piece of land of Hau Maka".[16] However, there are two words pronounced pito in Rapa Nui, one meaning 'end' and one 'navel', and the phrase can thus also mean "The Navel of the World". Another name, Mata ki te rangi, means "Eyes looking to the sky".[17]
Islanders are referred to in Spanish as pascuense; however it is common to refer to members of the indigenous community as Rapa Nui.
Felipe González de Ahedo named it Isla de San Carlos ("Saint Charles' Island", the patron saint of Charles III of Spain) or Isla de David (probably the phantom island of Davis Land; sometimes translated as "Davis's Island"[18]) in 1770.[19]
History
Introduction
Oral tradition states the island was first settled by a two-canoe
expedition, originating from Marae Renga (or Marae Toe Hau), and led by
the chief Hotu Matu'a and his captain Tu'u ko Iho. The island was first
scouted after Haumaka dreamed of such a far-off country; Hotu deemed it
a worthwhile place to flee from a neighboring chief, one to whom he had
already lost three battles. At their time of arrival, the island had
one lone settler, Nga Tavake 'a Te Rona. After a brief stay at Anakena,
the colonists settled in different parts of the island. Hotu's heir,
Tu'u ma Heke, was born on the island. Tu'u ko Iho is viewed as the
leader who brought the statues and caused them to walk.[20]
The Easter Islanders are considered to be South-East Polynesians. Similar sacred zones with statuary (marae and ahu) in East Polynesia demonstrates homology with most of Eastern Polynesia. At contact, populations were about 3,000–4,000.[20]:17–18,20–21,31,41–45
By the 15th century, two confederations, hanau, of social groupings, mata,
existed, based on lineage. The western and northern portion of the
island belonged to the Tu'u, which included the royal Miru, with the
royal center at Anakena, though Tahai and Te Peu served as earlier
capitals. The eastern portion of the island belonged to the 'Otu 'Itu.
Shortly after the Dutch visit, from 1724 until 1750, the 'Otu 'Itu
fought the Tu'u for control of the island. This fighting continued
until the 1860s. Famine followed the burning of huts and the
destruction of fields. Social control vanished as the ordered way of
life gave way to lawlessness and predatory bands as the warrior class
took over. Homelessness prevailed, with many living underground. After
the Spanish visit, from 1770 onwards, a period of statue toppling, huri mo'ai, commenced. This was an attempt by competing groups to destroy the socio-spiritual power, or mana,
represented by statues, making sure to break them in the fall to ensure
they were dead and without power. None were left standing by the time
of the arrival of the French missionaries in the 1860s.[20]:21–24,27,54–56,64–65
Between 1862 and 1888, about 94% of the population perished or emigrated. The island was victimized by blackbirding from 1862 to 1863, resulting in the abduction or killing of about 1,500, with 1,408 working as indentured servants
in Peru. Only about a dozen eventually returned to Easter Island, but
they brought smallpox, which decimated the remaining population of
1,500. Those who perished included the island's tumu ivi 'atua, bearers of the island's culture, history, and genealogy besides the rongorongo experts.[20]:86–91
Rapa Nui settlement
Estimated dates of initial settlement of Easter Island have ranged
from 300 to 1200 CE, though the current best estimate for colonization
is in the 12th century CE. Easter Island colonization likely coincided
with the arrival of the first settlers in Hawaii. Rectifications in radiocarbon dating
have changed almost all of the previously posited early settlement
dates in Polynesia. Ongoing archaeological studies provide this late
date: "Radiocarbon dates for the earliest stratigraphic layers at
Anakena, Easter Island, and analysis of previous radiocarbon dates imply
that the island was colonized late, about 1200 AD. Significant
ecological impacts and major cultural investments in monumental
architecture and statuary thus began soon after initial settlement."[21][22]
According to oral tradition, the first settlement was at Anakena.
Researchers have noted that the Caleta Anakena landing point provides
the island's best shelter from prevailing swells as well as a sandy
beach for canoe landings and launchings, so it is a likely early place
of settlement. However radiocarbon dating concludes that other sites preceded Anakena by many years, especially the Tahai by several centuries.
The island was most likely populated by Polynesians who navigated in canoes or catamarans from the Gambier Islands (Mangareva, 2,600 km (1,600 mi) away) or the Marquesas Islands, 3,200 km (2,000 mi) away. According to some theories, such as the Polynesian Diaspora Theory, there is a possibility that early Polynesian settlers arrived from South America due to their remarkable sea-navigation abilities. Theorists have supported this through the agricultural evidence of the sweet potato.
The sweet potato was a favoured crop in Polynesian society for
generations but it originated in South America, suggesting interaction
between these two geographic areas.[23]
However, recent research suggests that sweet potatoes may have spread
to Polynesia by long-distance dispersal long before the Polynesians
arrived.[24] When James Cook visited the island, one of his crew members, a Polynesian from Bora Bora, Hitihiti, was able to communicate with the Rapa Nui.[25]:296–297 The language most similar to Rapa Nui is Mangarevan, with an estimated 80% similar vocabulary. In 1999, a voyage with reconstructed Polynesian boats was able to reach Easter Island from Mangareva in 19 days.[26]
According to oral traditions recorded by missionaries in the 1860s, the island originally had a strong class system: an ariki, or high chief,
wielded great power over nine other clans and their respective chiefs.
The high chief was the eldest descendant through first-born lines of the
island's legendary founder, Hotu Matu'a. The most visible element in the culture was the production of massive moai statues that some believe represented deified ancestors. According to National Geographic,
"Most scholars suspect that the moai were created to honor ancestors,
chiefs, or other important personages, However, no written and little
oral history exists on the island, so it’s impossible to be certain."[28]
It was believed that the living had a symbiotic relationship
with the dead in which the dead provided everything that the living
needed (health, fertility of land and animals, fortune etc.) and the
living, through offerings, provided the dead with a better place in the
spirit world. Most settlements were located on the coast, and most moai
were erected along the coastline, watching over their descendants in the
settlements before them, with their backs toward the spirit world in
the sea.
Jared Diamond suggested that cannibalism took place on Easter Island after the construction of the moai contributed to environmental degradation when extreme deforestation destabilized an already precarious ecosystem.[29]
Archeological record shows that at the time of the initial settlement
the island was home to many species of trees, including at least three
species which grew up to 15 metres (49 ft) or more: Paschalococos (possibly the largest palm trees in the world at the time), Alphitonia zizyphoides, and Elaeocarpus rarotongensis.
At least six species of land birds were known to live on the island. A
major factor that contributed to the extinction of multiple plant
species was the introduction of the Polynesian rat.
Studies by paleobotanists have shown rats can dramatically affect the
reproduction of vegetation in an ecosystem. In the case of Rapa Nui,
recovered plant seed shells showed markings of being gnawed on by rats.[3]
Barbara A. West wrote, "Sometime before the arrival of Europeans on
Easter Island, the Rapanui experienced a tremendous upheaval in their
social system brought about by a change in their island's ecology... By
the time of European arrival in 1722, the island's population had
dropped to 2,000–3,000 from a high of approximately 15,000 just a
century earlier."[30]
By that time, 21 species of trees and all species of land birds
became extinct through some combination of over-harvesting,
over-hunting, rat predation, and climate change. The island was largely
deforested, and it did not have any trees taller than 3 m (9.8 ft). Loss
of large trees meant that residents were no longer able to build
seaworthy vessels, significantly diminishing their fishing abilities.
One theory is that the trees were used as rollers to move the statues to
their place of erection from the quarry at Rano Raraku.[31] Deforestation also caused erosion which caused a sharp decline in agricultural production.[3]
This was exacerbated by the loss of land birds and the collapse in
seabird populations as a source of food. By the 18th century, islanders
were largely sustained by farming, with domestic chickens as the primary
source of protein.[32]
As the island became overpopulated and resources diminished, warriors known as matatoa
gained more power and the Ancestor Cult ended, making way for the Bird
Man Cult. Beverly Haun wrote, "The concept of mana (power) invested in
hereditary leaders was recast into the person of the birdman, apparently
beginning circa 1540, and coinciding with the final vestiges of the
moai period."[33]
This cult maintained that, although the ancestors still provided for
their descendants, the medium through which the living could contact the
dead was no longer statues but human beings chosen through a
competition. The god responsible for creating humans, Makemake, played an important role in this process. Katherine Routledge, who systematically collected the island's traditions in her 1919 expedition,[34] showed that the competitions for Bird Man (Rapa Nui: tangata manu)
started around 1760, after the arrival of the first Europeans, and
ended in 1878, with the construction of the first church by Roman
Catholic missionaries who formally arrived in 1864. Petroglyphs
representing Bird Men on Easter Island are the same as some in Hawaii,
indicating that this concept was probably brought by the original
settlers; only the competition itself was unique to Easter Island.
Motu Nui islet, part of the Birdman Cult ceremony
According to Diamond and Heyerdahl's version of the island's history, the huri mo'ai—"statue-toppling"—continued
into the 1830s as a part of fierce internal wars. By 1838, the only
standing moai were on the slopes of Rano Raraku, in Hoa Hakananai'a in Orongo,
and Ariki Paro in Ahu Te Pito Kura. A study headed by Douglas Owsley
published in 1994 asserted that there is little archaeological evidence
of pre-European societal collapse.[citation needed] Bone pathology and osteometric data from islanders of that period clearly suggest few fatalities can be attributed directly to violence.[35]
European contact
The first recorded European contact with the island was on 5 April 1722, Easter Sunday, by Dutch navigator Jacob Roggeveen.[25] His visit resulted in the death of about a dozen islanders, including the tumu ivi 'atua, and the wounding of many others.[20]:46–53
The next foreign visitors (on 15 November 1770) were two Spanish ships, San Lorenzo and Santa Rosalia, under the command of Captain Don Felipe Gonzalez de Ahedo.[25]:238,504 The Spanish were amazed by the "standing idols", all of which were erect at the time.[20]:60–64
Four years later, in 1774, British explorer James Cook
visited Easter Island; he reported that some statues had been toppled.
Through the interpretation of Hitihiti, Cook learned the statues
commemorated their former high chiefs, including their names and ranks.[25]:296–297
On 10 April 1776 French Admiral Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse
anchored at Hanga Roa at the start of a circumnavigation of the
Pacific. He made a detailed map of the bay, including his anchorage
points, as well as a more generalised map of the island, plus some
illustrations.[36]
19th century
A series of devastating events killed or removed most of the population in the 1860s. In December 1862, Peruvian
slave raiders struck. Violent abductions continued for several months,
eventually capturing around 1,500 men and women, half of the island's
population.[37] Among those captured were the island's paramount chief, his heir, and those who knew how to read and write the rongorongo script, the only Polynesian script to have been found to date, although debate exists about whether this is proto-writing or true writing.
When the slave raiders were forced to repatriate the people they had kidnapped, carriers of smallpox disembarked together with a few survivors on each of the islands.[38] This created devastating epidemics from Easter Island to the Marquesas islands. Easter Island's population was reduced to the point where some of the dead were not even buried.[20]:91
Tuberculosis, introduced by whalers in the mid-19th century, had already killed several islanders when the first Christian missionary, Eugène Eyraud,
died from this disease in 1867. It ultimately killed approximately a
quarter of the island's population. In the following years, the managers
of the sheep ranch and the missionaries started buying the newly
available lands of the deceased, and this led to great confrontations
between natives and settlers.
"Queen Mother" Koreto with her daughters "Queen" Caroline and Harriette in 1877
Jean-Baptiste Dutrou-Bornier bought up all of the island apart from the missionaries' area around Hanga Roa and moved a few hundred Rapa Nui to Tahiti
to work for his backers. In 1871 the missionaries, having fallen out
with Dutrou-Bornier, evacuated all but 171 Rapa Nui to the Gambier islands.[39]
Those who remained were mostly older men. Six years later, only 111
people lived on Easter Island, and only 36 of them had any offspring.[40]
From that point on, the island's population slowly recovered. But with
over 97% of the population dead or gone in less than a decade, much of
the island's cultural knowledge had been lost.
Alexander Salmon, Jr., a son of an English Jewish merchant and a Pōmare Dynasty prince, eventually worked to repatriate workers from his inherited copra
plantation. He eventually bought up all lands on the island with the
exception of the mission, and was its sole employer. He worked to
develop tourism on the island and was the principal informant for the
British and German archaeological expeditions for the island. He sent
several pieces of genuine Rongorongo to his niece's husband, the German
consul in Valparaíso,
Chile. Salmon sold the Brander Easter Island holdings to the Chilean
government on 2 January 1888, and signed as a witness to the cession of
the island. He returned to Tahiti in December 1888. He effectively ruled
the island from 1878 until his cession to Chile in 1888.
Easter Island was annexed by Chile on 9 September 1888 by Policarpo Toro
by means of the "Treaty of Annexation of the Island" (Tratado de
Anexión de la isla). Toro, representing the government of Chile, signed
with Atamu Tekena,
designated "King" by the Roman Catholic missionaries after the
paramount chief and his heir had died. The validity of this treaty is
still contested by some Rapa Nui. Officially, Chile purchased the nearly
all encompassing Mason-Brander sheep ranch, comprised from lands
purchased from the descendants of Rapa Nui who died during the
epidemics, and then claimed sovereignty over the island.
20th century
General Pinochet posing with a young
Rapa Nui woman
Until the 1960s, the surviving Rapa Nui were confined to Hanga Roa. The rest of the island was rented to the Williamson-Balfour Company as a sheep farm until 1953. This exemplified the introduction of private property into Rapa Nui.[41] The island was then managed by the Chilean Navy
until 1966, at which point the island was reopened in its entirety. In
1966, the Rapa Nui were colonized and given Chilean citizenship.[42]
Following the 1973 Chilean coup d'état that brought Augusto Pinochet to power, Easter Island was placed under martial law.
Tourism slowed, land was broken up, and private property was
distributed to investors. During his time in power, Pinochet visited
Easter Island on three occasions. The military built military facilities
and a city hall.[43]
After an agreement in 1985 between Chile and United States, the runway at Mataveri International Airport
was enlarged and was inaugurated in 1987. The runway was expanded 423 m
(1,388 ft), reaching 3,353 m (11,001 ft). Pinochet is reported to have
refused to attend the inauguration in protest at pressures from the
United States over human rights.[44]
21st century
Manu
Piri symbolizes love and union between two people. The slogan of the
current administration is "Rapa Nui hai mahatu", or s "Rapa Nui with
love".
Fishers of Rapa Nui have shown their concern of illegal fishing on
the island. "Since the year 2000 we started to lose tuna, which is the
basis of the fishing on the island, so then we began to take the fish
from the shore to feed our families, but in less than two years we
depleted all of it", Pakarati said.[45] On 30 July 2007, a constitutional reform gave Easter Island and the Juan Fernández Islands (also known as Robinson Crusoe Island)
the status of "special territories" of Chile. Pending the enactment of a
special charter, the island continues to be governed as a province of
the V Region of Valparaíso.[46]
Species of fish were collected in Easter Island for one month in
different habitats including shallow lava pools and deep waters. Within
these habitats, two holotypes and paratypes, Antennarius randalli and Antennarius moai,
were discovered. These are considered frog-fish because of their
characteristics: "12 dorsal rays, last two or three branched; bony part
of first dorsal spine slightly shorter than second dorsal spine; body
without bold zebra-like markings; caudal peduncle short, but distinct;
last pelvic ray divided; pectoral rays 11 or 12".[47]
In 2018, the government decided to limit the stay period for
tourists from 90 to 30 days because of social and environmental issues
faced by the Island to preserve its historical importance.[48]
Indigenous rights movement
Souvenir Moai from Rapa Nui, bought at the Artisan's Market, 2020
Starting in August 2010, members of the indigenous Hitorangi clan occupied the Hangaroa Eco Village and Spa.[49][50]
The occupiers allege that the hotel was bought from the Pinochet
government, in violation of a Chilean agreement with the indigenous Rapa
Nui, in the 1990s.[51] The occupiers say their ancestors had been cheated into giving up the land.[52] According to a BBC report, on 3 December 2010, at least 25 people were injured when Chilean police using pellet guns
attempted to evict from these buildings a group of Rapa Nui who had
claimed that the land the buildings stood on had been illegally taken
from their ancestors.[53]
In January 2011, the UN Special Rapporteur on Indigenous People, James Anaya,
expressed concern about the treatment of the indigenous Rapa Nui by the
Chilean government, urging Chile to "make every effort to conduct a
dialogue in good faith with representatives of the Rapa Nui people to solve, as soon as possible the real underlying problems that explain the current situation".[49]
The incident ended in February 2011, when up to 50 armed police broke
into the hotel to remove the final five occupiers. They were arrested by
the government, and no injuries were reported.[49]
Geography
Easter Island, Isla Salas y Gómez, South America and the islands in between
Detailed map of Rapa Nui/Easter Island
Easter Island is one of the world's most isolated inhabited islands. Its closest inhabited neighbours are the Chilean Juan Fernandez Islands, 1,850 km (1,150 mi) to the east, with approximately 850 inhabitants.[citation needed] The nearest continental point lies in central Chile near Concepción, at 3,512 kilometres (2,182 mi). Easter Island's latitude is similar to that of Caldera, Chile, and it lies 3,510 km (2,180 mi) west of continental Chile at its nearest point (between Lota and Lebu in the Biobío Region). Isla Salas y Gómez, 415 km (258 mi) to the east, is closer but is uninhabited. The Tristan da Cunha archipelago in the southern Atlantic competes for the title of the most remote island, lying 2,430 km (1,510 mi) from Saint Helena island and 2,816 km (1,750 mi) from the South African coast.
The island is about 24.6 km (15.3 mi) long by 12.3 km (7.6 mi) at
its widest point; its overall shape is triangular. It has an area of
163.6 km2 (63.2 sq mi), and a maximum elevation of 507 m (1,663 ft) above mean sea level. There are three Rano (freshwater crater lakes), at Rano Kau, Rano Raraku and Rano Aroi, near the summit of Terevaka, but no permanent streams or rivers.
Geology
Typical landscape on Easter Island; rounded extinct volcanoes covered in low vegetation.
Easter Island is a volcanic high island, consisting mainly of three extinct coalesced volcanoes: Terevaka (altitude 507 metres) forms the bulk of the island, while two other volcanoes, Poike
and Rano Kau, form the eastern and southern headlands and give the
island its roughly triangular shape. Lesser cones and other volcanic
features include the crater Rano Raraku, the cinder cone Puna Pau and many volcanic caves including lava tubes.[54]
Poike used to be a separate island until volcanic material from
Terevaka united it to the larger whole. The island is dominated by hawaiite and basalt flows which are rich in iron and show affinity with igneous rocks found in the Galápagos Islands.[55]
Easter Island and surrounding islets, such as Motu Nui and Motu Iti,
form the summit of a large volcanic mountain rising over 2,000 m
(6,600 ft) from the sea bed. The mountain is part of the Salas y Gómez
Ridge, a (mostly submarine) mountain range with dozens of seamounts, formed by the Easter hotspot. The range begins with Pukao and next Moai, two seamounts to the west of Easter Island, and extends 2,700 km (1,700 mi) east to the Nazca Ridge. The ridge was formed by the Nazca Plate moving over the Easter hotspot.[56]
Located about 350 km (220 mi) east of the East Pacific Rise, Easter Island lies within the Nazca Plate, bordering the Easter Microplate. The Nazca-Pacific relative plate movement due to the seafloor spreading,
amounts to about 150 mm (5.9 in) per year. This movement over the
Easter hotspot has resulted in the Easter Seamount Chain, which merges
into the Nazca Ridge further to the east. Easter Island and Isla Salas y Gómez
are surface representations of that chain. The chain has progressively
younger ages to the west. The current hotspot location is speculated
to be west of Easter Island, amidst the Ahu, Umu and Tupa submarine
volcanic fields and the Pukao and Moai seamounts.[57]
Easter Island lies atop the Rano Kau Ridge, and consists of three shield volcanoes
with parallel geologic histories. Poike and Rano Kau exist on the east
and south slopes of Terevaka, respectively. Rano Kau developed between
0.78 and 0.46 Ma from tholeiitic to alkalic basalts. This volcano possesses a clearly defined summit caldera. Benmoreitic lavas extruded about the rim from 0.35 to 0.34 Ma. Finally, between 0.24 and 0.11 Ma, a 6.5 km (4.0 mi) fissure developed along a NE-SW trend, forming monogenetic vents and rhyolitic intrusions. These include the cryptodome islets of Motu Nui and Motu Iti, the islet of Motu Kao Kao, the sheet intrusion of Te Kari Kari, the perlitic obsidian Te Manavai dome and the Maunga Orito dome.[57]
Poike formed from tholeiitic to alkali basalts from 0.78 to 0.41
Ma. Its summit collapsed into a caldera which was subsequently filled
by the Puakatiki lava cone pahoehoe flows at 0.36 Ma. Finally, the trachytic lava domes of Maunga Vai a Heva, Maunga Tea Tea, and Maunga Parehe formed along a NE-SW trending fissure.[57]
Terevaka formed around 0.77 Ma of tholeiitic to alkali basalts,
followed by the collapse of its summit into a caldera. Then at about
0.3Ma, cinder cones formed along a NNE-SSW trend on the western rim,
while porphyritic
benmoreitic lava filled the caldera, and pahoehoe flowed towards the
northern coast, forming lava tubes, and to the southeast. Lava domes
and a vent complex formed in the Maunga Puka area, while breccias formed
along the vents on the western portion of Rano Aroi crater. This
volcano's southern and southeastern flanks are composed of younger flows
consisting of basalt, alkali basalt, hawaiite, mugearite,
and benmoreite from eruptive fissures starting at 0.24 Ma. The
youngest lava flow, Roiho, is dated at 0.11 Ma. The Hanga O Teo
embayment is interpreted to be a 200 m high landslide scarp.[57]
Rano Raraku and Maunga Toa Toa are isolated tuff cones of about 0.21 Ma. The crater of Rano Raraku contains a freshwater lake. The stratified tuff is composed of sideromelane, slightly altered to palagonite, and somewhat lithified. The tuff contains lithic fragments of older lava flows. The northwest sector of Rano Raraku contains reddish volcanic ash.[57] According to Bandy, "...all of the great images of Easter Island are carved from" the light and porous tuff from Rano Raraku. A carving was abandoned when a large, dense and hard
lithic fragment was encountered. However, these lithics became the
basis for stone hammers and chisels. The Puna Pau crater contains an
extremely porous pumice, from which was carved the Pukao "hats". The Maunga Orito obsidian was used to make the "mataa" spearheads.[58]
In the first half of the 20th century, steam reportedly came out
of the Rano Kau crater wall. This was photographed by the island's
manager, Mr. Edmunds.[59]
Climate
Under the Köppen climate classification, the climate of Easter Island is classified as a tropical rainforest climate (Af) that borders on a humid subtropical climate (Cfa).
The lowest temperatures are recorded in July and August (minimum 15 °C
or 59 °F) and the highest in February (maximum temperature 28 °C or
82.4 °F[60]),
the summer season in the southern hemisphere. Winters are relatively
mild. The rainiest month is May, though the island experiences
year-round rainfall.[61]
Easter Island's isolated location exposes it to winds which help to
keep the temperature fairly cool. Precipitation averages 1,118
millimetres or 44 inches per year. Occasionally, heavy rainfall and
rainstorms strike the island. These occur mostly in the winter months
(June–August). Since it is close to the South Pacific High and outside the range of the intertropical convergence zone, cyclones and hurricanes do not occur around Easter Island.[62] There is significant temperature moderation due to its isolated position in the middle of the ocean.
| Climate data for Easter Island (Mataveri International Airport) 1981-2010, extremes 1912-1990
|
|---|
| Month
|
Jan
|
Feb
|
Mar
|
Apr
|
May
|
Jun
|
Jul
|
Aug
|
Sep
|
Oct
|
Nov
|
Dec
|
Year
|
| Record high °C (°F)
|
32.0
(89.6)
|
31.0
(87.8)
|
32.0
(89.6)
|
31.0
(87.8)
|
30.0
(86.0)
|
29.0
(84.2)
|
31.0
(87.8)
|
28.3
(82.9)
|
30.0
(86.0)
|
29.0
(84.2)
|
33.0
(91.4)
|
34.0
(93.2)
|
34.0
(93.2)
|
| Average high °C (°F)
|
26.9
(80.4)
|
27.4
(81.3)
|
26.8
(80.2)
|
25.3
(77.5)
|
23.3
(73.9)
|
21.9
(71.4)
|
21.0
(69.8)
|
21.0
(69.8)
|
21.5
(70.7)
|
22.4
(72.3)
|
23.8
(74.8)
|
25.4
(77.7)
|
23.9
(75.0)
|
| Daily mean °C (°F)
|
23.3
(73.9)
|
23.7
(74.7)
|
23.1
(73.6)
|
21.9
(71.4)
|
20.1
(68.2)
|
18.9
(66.0)
|
18.0
(64.4)
|
17.9
(64.2)
|
18.3
(64.9)
|
19.0
(66.2)
|
20.4
(68.7)
|
21.8
(71.2)
|
20.5
(68.9)
|
| Average low °C (°F)
|
20.0
(68.0)
|
20.6
(69.1)
|
20.3
(68.5)
|
19.3
(66.7)
|
17.8
(64.0)
|
16.8
(62.2)
|
15.9
(60.6)
|
15.6
(60.1)
|
15.8
(60.4)
|
16.2
(61.2)
|
17.4
(63.3)
|
18.7
(65.7)
|
17.9
(64.2)
|
| Record low °C (°F)
|
12.0
(53.6)
|
14.0
(57.2)
|
11.0
(51.8)
|
12.7
(54.9)
|
10.0
(50.0)
|
7.0
(44.6)
|
9.4
(48.9)
|
7.0
(44.6)
|
8.0
(46.4)
|
8.0
(46.4)
|
8.0
(46.4)
|
12.0
(53.6)
|
7.0
(44.6)
|
| Average rainfall mm (inches)
|
70.4
(2.77)
|
80.2
(3.16)
|
99.2
(3.91)
|
139.9
(5.51)
|
143.4
(5.65)
|
110.3
(4.34)
|
130.1
(5.12)
|
104.8
(4.13)
|
108.5
(4.27)
|
90.6
(3.57)
|
75.4
(2.97)
|
75.6
(2.98)
|
1,228.1
(48.35)
|
| Average relative humidity (%)
|
77
|
79
|
79
|
81
|
81
|
81
|
80
|
80
|
79
|
77
|
77
|
78
|
79
|
| Mean monthly sunshine hours
|
274
|
239
|
229
|
193
|
173
|
145
|
156
|
172
|
179
|
213
|
222
|
242
|
2,437
|
| Source 1: Dirección Meteorológica de Chile[63]
|
| Source 2: Ogimet (sun 1981–2010)[64] Deutscher Wetterdienst (extremes and humidity)[65]
|
Ecology
Easter Island, together with its closest neighbour, the tiny island of Isla Salas y Gómez 415 km (258 mi) farther east, is recognized by ecologists as a distinct ecoregion, the Rapa Nui subtropical broadleaf forests. The original subtropical moist broadleaf forests are now gone, but paleobotanical studies of fossil pollen, tree moulds left by lava flows, and root casts found in local soils indicate that the island was formerly forested, with a range of trees, shrubs, ferns, and grasses. A large extinct palm, Paschalococos disperta, related to the Chilean wine palm (Jubaea chilensis),
was one of the dominant trees as attested by fossil evidence. Like its
Chilean counterpart it probably took close to 100 years to reach adult
height. The Polynesian rat,
which the original settlers brought with them, played a very important
role in the disappearance of the Rapa Nui palm. Although some may
believe that rats played a major role in the degradation of the forest,
less than 10% of palm nuts show teeth marks from rats. The remains of
palm stumps in different places indicate that humans caused the trees to
fall because in large areas, the stumps were cut efficiently.[66] In 2018, a New York Times article announced that Easter Island is eroding.[67]
The clearance of the palms to make the settlements led to their extinction almost 350 years ago.[68] The toromiro tree (Sophora toromiro) was prehistorically present on Easter Island, but is now extinct in the wild. However, the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and the Göteborg Botanical Garden
are jointly leading a scientific program to reintroduce the toromiro to
Easter Island. With the palm and the toromiro virtually gone, there was
considerably less rainfall as a result of less condensation. After the
island was used to feed thousands of sheep for almost a century, by the
mid-1900s the island was mostly covered in grassland with nga'atu or bulrush (Schoenoplectus californicus tatora) in the crater lakes of Rano Raraku and Rano Kau. The presence of these reeds, which are called totora in the Andes,
was used to support the argument of a South American origin of the
statue builders, but pollen analysis of lake sediments shows these reeds
have grown on the island for over 30,000 years.[citation needed] Before the arrival of humans, Easter Island had vast seabird colonies containing probably over 30 resident species, perhaps the world's richest.[69] Such colonies are no longer found on the main island. Fossil evidence indicates six species of land birds (two rails, two parrots, one owl, and one heron), all of which have become extinct.[70] Five introduced species of land bird are known to have breeding populations (see List of birds of Easter Island).
Lack of studies results in poor understanding of the oceanic
fauna of Easter Island and waters in its vicinity; however,
possibilities of undiscovered breeding grounds for humpback, southern blue and pygmy blue whales including Easter Island and Isla Salas y Gómez have been considered.[71] Potential breeding areas for fin whales have been detected off northeast of the island as well.[72]
- Vegetation on the island
Satellite view of Easter Island 2019. The Poike peninsula is on the right.
Digital recreation of its ancient landscape, with tropical forest and palm trees
View toward the interior of the island
The immunosuppressant drug sirolimus was first discovered in the bacterium Streptomyces hygroscopicus in a soil sample from Easter Island. The drug is also known as rapamycin, after Rapa Nui.[73] It is now being studied for extending longevity in mice.[74]
Trees are sparse, rarely forming natural groves, and it has been argued whether native Easter Islanders deforested the island in the process of erecting their statues,[75] and in providing sustenance for an overconsumption of natural resources from a overcrowded island.[citation needed] Experimental archaeology demonstrated that some statues certainly could have been placed on "Y" shaped wooden frames called miro manga erua and then pulled to their final destinations on ceremonial sites.[75] Other theories involve the use of "ladders" (parallel wooden rails) over which the statues could have been dragged.[76] Rapa Nui traditions metaphorically refer to spiritual power (mana)
as the means by which the moai were "walked" from the quarry. Recent
experimental recreations have proven that it is fully possible that the
moai were literally walked from their quarries to their final positions
by use of ropes, casting doubt on the role that their existence plays in
the environmental collapse of the island.[77]
Given the island's southern latitude, the climatic effects of the Little Ice Age (about 1650 to 1850) may have exacerbated deforestation, although this remains speculative.[75] Many researchers[78]
point to the climatic downtrend caused by the Little Ice Age as a
contributing factor to resource stress and to the palm tree's
disappearance. Experts, however, do not agree on when the island's palms
became extinct.
Jared Diamond dismisses past climate change as a dominant cause of the island's deforestation in his book Collapse which assesses the collapse of the ancient Easter Islanders.
Influenced by Heyerdahl's romantic interpretation of Easter's history,
Diamond insists that the disappearance of the island's trees seems to
coincide with a decline of its civilization around the 17th and 18th
centuries. He notes that they stopped making statues at that time and
started destroying the ahu. But the link is weakened because the Bird
Man cult continued to thrive and survived the great impact caused by the
arrival of explorers, whalers, sandalwood traders, and slave raiders.
Midden contents show that the main source of protein was tuna
and dolphin. With the loss of the trees, there was a sudden drop in the
quantities of fish bones found in middens as the islanders lost the
means to construct fishing vessels, coinciding with a large increase in
bird bones. This was followed by a decrease in the number of bird bones
as birds lost their nesting sites or became extinct. A new style of art
from this period shows people with exposed ribs and distended bellies,
indicative of malnutrition, and it is around this time that many
islanders moved to live in fortified caves, and the first signs of
warfare and cannibalism appear.
Soil erosion
because of lack of trees is apparent in some places. Sediment samples
document that up to half of the native plants had become extinct and
that the vegetation of the island drastically altered. Polynesians were
primarily farmers, not fishermen, and their diet consisted mainly of
cultivated staples such as taro root, sweet potato, yams, cassava, and
bananas. With no trees to protect them, sea spray led to crop failures
exacerbated by a sudden reduction in freshwater flows. There is evidence
that the islanders took to planting crops in caves beneath collapsed
ceilings and covered the soil with rocks to reduce evaporation.
Cannibalism occurred on many Polynesian islands, sometimes in times of
plenty as well as famine. Its presence on Easter Island (based on human
remains associated with cooking sites, especially in caves) is supported
by oral histories.[citation needed]
Benny Peiser[5] noted evidence of self-sufficiency when Europeans first arrived. The island still had smaller trees, mainly toromiro,
which became extinct in the wild in the 20th century probably because
of slow growth and changes in the island's ecosystem. Cornelis Bouman, Jakob Roggeveen's captain, stated in his logbook, "... of yams, bananas and small coconut palms
we saw little and no other trees or crops." According to Carl Friedrich
Behrens, Roggeveen's officer, "The natives presented palm branches as
peace offerings." According to ethnographer Alfred Mètraux, the most
common type of house was called "hare paenga" (and is known today as
"boathouse") because the roof resembled an overturned boat. The
foundations of the houses were made of buried basalt slabs with holes
for wooden beams to connect with each other throughout the width of the
house. These were then covered with a layer of totora reed, followed by a
layer of woven sugarcane leaves, and lastly a layer of woven grass.
Peiser claims that these reports indicate that large trees
existed at that time, which is perhaps contradicted by the Bouman quote
above. Plantations were often located farther inland, next to foothills,
inside open-ceiling lava tubes, and in other places protected from the
strong salt winds and salt spray affecting areas closer to the coast. It
is possible many of the Europeans did not venture inland. The statue
quarry, only one kilometre (5⁄8
mile) from the coast with an impressive cliff 100 m (330 ft) high, was
not explored by Europeans until well into the 19th century.
Panorama of
Anakena beach, Easter Island. The moai pictured here was the first to be raised back into place on its
ahu in 1955 by Thor Heyerdahl
[80] using the labor of islanders and wooden levers.
Easter Island has suffered from heavy soil erosion in recent centuries, perhaps aggravated by agriculture and massive deforestation. This process seems to have been gradual and may have been aggravated by sheep farming
throughout most of the 20th century. Jakob Roggeveen reported that
Easter Island was exceptionally fertile. "Fowls are the only animals
they keep. They cultivate bananas, sugar cane, and above all sweet
potatoes." In 1786 Jean-François de La Pérouse visited Easter Island and
his gardener declared that "three days' work a year" would be enough to
support the population. Rollin, a major in the Pérouse expedition,
wrote, "Instead of meeting with men exhausted by famine... I found, on
the contrary, a considerable population, with more beauty and grace than
I afterwards met in any other island; and a soil, which, with very
little labor, furnished excellent provisions, and in an abundance more
than sufficient for the consumption of the inhabitants."[81]
According to Diamond, the oral traditions (the veracity of which has been questioned by Routledge, Lavachery,
Mètraux, Peiser, and others) of the current islanders seem obsessed
with cannibalism, which he offers as evidence supporting a rapid
collapse. For example, he states, to severely insult an enemy one would
say, "The flesh of your mother sticks between my teeth." This, Diamond
asserts, means the food supply of the people ultimately ran out.[82] Cannibalism, however, was widespread across Polynesian cultures.[83]
Human bones have not been found in earth ovens other than those behind
the religious platforms, indicating that cannibalism in Easter Island
was a ritualistic practice. Contemporary ethnographic research has
proven there is scarcely any tangible evidence for widespread
cannibalism anywhere and at any time on the island.[84]
The first scientific exploration of Easter Island (1914) recorded that
the indigenous population strongly rejected allegations that they or
their ancestors had been cannibals.[34]
Culture
Bird paintings in the cave called "Cave of the Men Eaters"
Mythology
The most important myths are:[citation needed]
- Tangata manu, the Birdman cult which was practised until the 1860s.
- Makemake, an important god.
- Aku-aku, the guardians of the sacred family caves.
- Moai-kava-kava a ghost man of the Hanau epe (long-ears.)
- Hekai ite umu pare haonga takapu Hanau epe kai noruego, the sacred chant to appease the aku-aku before entering a family cave.
Stone work
The Rapa Nui people had a Stone Age culture and made extensive use of local stone:
- Basalt, a hard, dense stone used for toki and at least one of the moai.
- Obsidian, a volcanic glass with sharp edges used for sharp-edged implements such as Mataa and for the black pupils of the eyes of the moai.
- Red scoria from Puna Pau, a very light red stone used for the pukao and a few moai.
- Tuff from Rano Raraku, a much more easily worked rock than basalt that was used for most of the moai.
Statues
The large stone statues, or moai, for which Easter Island is famous, were carved in the period 1100–1680 CE (rectified radio-carbon dates).[17] A total of 887 monolithic stone statues have been inventoried on the island and in museum collections.[85]
Although often identified as "Easter Island heads", the statues have
torsos, most of them ending at the top of the thighs; a small number are
complete figures that kneel on bent knees with their hands over their
stomachs.[86][87] Some upright moai have become buried up to their necks by shifting soils.
Almost all (95%)[citation needed] moai were carved from compressed, easily worked solidified volcanic ash or tuff,
found at a single site on the side of the extinct volcano Rano Raraku.
The native islanders who carved them used only stone hand chisels,
mainly basalt toki, which lie in place all over the quarry. The
stone chisels were sharpened by chipping off a new edge when dulled.
While sculpting was going on, the volcanic stone was splashed with water
to soften it. While many teams worked on different statues at the same
time, a single moai took a team of five or six men approximately a year
to complete. Each statue represented the deceased head of a lineage.[citation needed]
Only a quarter of the statues were installed. Nearly half
remained in the quarry at Rano Raraku, and the rest sat elsewhere,
presumably on their way to intended locations. The largest moai raised
on a platform is known as "Paro". It weighs 82 tonnes (90 short tons)
and is 9.89 m (32 ft 5 in) long.[88][89] Several other statues of similar weight were transported to ahu on the north and south coasts.
Possible means by which the statues were moved include employment of a miro manga erua, a Y-shaped sledge with cross pieces, pulled with ropes made from the tough bark of the hau tree[90]
and tied around the statue's neck. Anywhere from 180 to 250 men were
required for pulling, depending on the size of the moai. Among other
researchers on moving and erecting the moai was Vince Lee,
who reenacted a moai moving scenario. Some 50 of the statues were
re-erected in modern times. One of the first was on Ahu Ature Huke in
Anakena beach in 1956.[91] It was raised using traditional methods during a Heyerdahl expedition.
Another method that might have been used to transport the moai
would be to attach ropes to the statue and rock it, tugging it forward
as it rocked. This would fit the legend of the Mo'ai 'walking' to their
final locations.[92][93][94] This might have been managed by as few as 15 people, supported by the following evidence:
- The heads of the moai in the quarry are sloped forward, whereas
the ones moved to final locations are not. This would serve to provide a
better centre of gravity for transport.
- The statues found along the transport roads have wider bases than
statues installed on ahu; this would facilitate more stable transport.
Studies have shown fractures along the bases of the statues in
transport; these could have arisen from rocking the statue back and
forth and placing great pressures on the edges. The statues found
mounted on ahu do not have wide bases, and stone chips found at the
sites suggest they were further modified on placement.
- The abandoned and fallen statues near the old roads are found (more
often than would be expected from chance) face down on ascending grades
and on their backs when headed uphill. Some were documented standing
upright along the old roads, e.g., by a party from Captain Cook's voyage
that rested in the shade of a standing statue. This would be consistent
with upright transport.
There is debate regarding the effects of the monument creation
process on the environment. Some believe that the process of creating
the moai caused widespread deforestation and ultimately a civil war over
scarce resources.[95]
In 2011, a large moai statue was excavated from the ground.[96] During the same excavation program, some larger moai were found to have complex dorsal petroglyphs, revealed by deep excavation of the torso.[97]
In 2020, a pickup truck crashed into and destroyed a moai statue due to brake failure. No one was injured in the incident.[98][99]
- Moais
Tukuturi, an unusual bearded kneeling moai
All fifteen standing moai at Ahu Tongariki, excavated and restored in the 1990s
Ahu Akivi, one of the few inland ahu, with the only moai facing the ocean
Stone platforms
Two ahu at
Hanga Roa. In foreground Ahu
Ko Te Riku (with a
pukao on its head). In the mid-ground is a side view of an
ahu
with five moai showing retaining wall, platform, ramp and pavement. The
Mataveri end of Hanga Roa is visible in the background with
Rano Kau rising above it.
Ahu are stone platforms. Varying greatly in layout, many were reworked during or after the huri mo'ai or statue-toppling era; many became ossuaries, one was dynamited open, and Ahu Tongariki was swept inland by a tsunami.
Of the 313 known ahu, 125 carried moai—usually just one, probably
because of the shortness of the moai period and transportation
difficulties. Ahu Tongariki, one km (0.62 mi) from Rano Raraku, had the most and tallest moai, 15 in total. Other notable ahu with moai are Ahu Akivi, restored in 1960 by William Mulloy, Nau Nau at Anakena and Tahai. Some moai may have been made from wood and were lost.
The classic elements of ahu design are:
- A retaining rear wall several feet high, usually facing the sea
- A front wall made of rectangular basalt slabs called paenga
- A fascia made of red scoria that went over the front wall (platforms built after 1300)
- A sloping ramp in the inland part of the platform, extending outward like wings
- A pavement of even-sized, round water-worn stones called poro
- An alignment of stones before the ramp
- A paved plaza before the ahu. This was called marae
- Inside the ahu was a fill of rubble.
On top of many ahu would have been:
- Moai on squarish "pedestals" looking inland, the ramp with the poro before them.
- Pukao or Hau Hiti Rau on the moai heads (platforms built after 1300).
- When a ceremony took place, "eyes" were placed on the statues. The
whites of the eyes were made of coral, the iris was made of obsidian or
red scoria.
Ahu evolved from the traditional Polynesian marae. In this context, ahu
referred to a small structure sometimes covered with a thatched roof
where sacred objects, including statues, were stored. The ahu were
usually adjacent to the marae or main central court where ceremonies
took place, though on Easter Island, ahu and moai evolved to much
greater size. There the marae is the unpaved plaza before the ahu. The
biggest ahu is 220 m (720 ft) and holds 15 statues, some of which are
9 m (30 ft) high. The filling of an ahu was sourced locally (apart from
broken, old moai, fragments of which have been used in the fill).[80]
Individual stones are mostly far smaller than the moai, so less work
was needed to transport the raw material, but artificially leveling the
terrain for the plaza and filling the ahu was laborious.
Ahu are found mostly on the coast, where they are distributed fairly evenly, except on the western slopes of Mount Terevaka and the Rano Kau and Poike[101]
headlands. These are the three areas with the least low-lying coastal
land and, apart from Poike, the furthest areas from Rano Raraku. One ahu
with several moai was recorded on the cliffs at Rano Kau in the 1880s
but had fallen to the beach before the Routledge expedition.[34]
A Hare Moa, a Chicken House, image cut from a
laser scan collected by nonprofit
CyArk.
Stone walls
One of the highest-quality examples of Easter Island stone masonry is the rear wall of the ahu at Vinapu.
Made without mortar by shaping hard basalt rocks of up to 7,000 kg (6.9
long tons; 7.7 short tons) to match each other exactly, it has a
superficial similarity to some Inca stone walls in South America.[102]
Stone houses
Two types of houses are known from the past: hare paenga, a
house with an elliptical foundation, made with basalt slabs and covered
with a thatched roof that resembled an overturned boat, and hare oka, a round stone structure. Related stone structures called Tupa look very similar to the hare oka, except that the Tupa
were inhabited by astronomer-priests and located near the coast, where
the movements of the stars could be easily observed. Settlements also
contain hare moa ("chicken house"), oblong stone structures that
housed chickens. The houses at the ceremonial village of Orongo are
unique in that they are shaped like hare paenga but are made
entirely of flat basalt slabs found inside Rano Kao crater. The
entrances to all the houses are very low, and entry requires crawling.
In early times the people of Rapa Nui reportedly sent the dead
out to sea in small funerary canoes, as did their Polynesian
counterparts on other islands. They later started burying people in
secret caves to save the bones from desecration by enemies. During the
turmoil of the late 18th century, the islanders seem to have started to
bury their dead in the space between the belly of a fallen moai and the
front wall of the structure. During the time of the epidemics they made
mass graves that were semi-pyramidal stone structures.
Petroglyphs
Petroglyphs are pictures carved into rock, and Easter Island has one of the richest collections in all Polynesia.
Around 1,000 sites with more than 4,000 petroglyphs are catalogued.
Designs and images were carved out of rock for a variety of reasons: to
create totems, to mark territory, or to memorialize a person or event.
There are distinct variations around the island in the frequency of
themes among petroglyphs, with a concentration of Birdmen at Orongo.
Other subjects include sea turtles, Komari (vulvas) and Makemake, the chief god of the Tangata manu or Birdman cult.[103]
Caves
The island[104] and neighbouring Motu Nui
are riddled with caves, many of which show signs of past human use for
planting and as fortifications, including narrowed entrances and crawl
spaces with ambush points. Many caves feature in the myths and legends
of the Rapa Nui.[105]
Other stones
The Pu o Hiro or Hiro's Trumpet is a stone on the north coast of Easter Island. It was once a musical instrument used in fertility rituals.[106][107][108]
Rongorongo
Easter Island once had an apparent script called rongorongo. Glyphs include pictographic and geometric shapes; the texts were incised in wood in reverse boustrophedon direction. It was first reported by French missionary Eugène Eyraud
in 1864. At that time, several islanders said they could understand the
writing, but according to tradition, only ruling families and priests
were ever literate, and none survived the slave raids and subsequent
epidemics. Despite numerous attempts, the surviving texts have not been
deciphered, and without decipherment it is not certain that they are
actually writing. Part of the problem is the small amount that has
survived: only two dozen texts, none of which remain on the island.
There are also only a couple of similarities with the petroglyphs on the island.[109]
Wood carving
 |
|
| Skeletal statuette |
Atypical portly statuette
|
Wood was scarce on Easter Island during the 18th and 19th centuries,
but a number of highly detailed and distinctive carvings have found
their way to the world's museums. Particular forms include:[110]
Ancestor figure, circa 1830, from
LACMA collections
- Reimiro, a gorget or breast ornament of crescent shape with a head at one or both tips.[111] The same design appears on the flag of Rapa Nui. Two Rei Miru at the British Museum are inscribed with Rongorongo.
- Moko Miro,
a man with a lizard head. The Moko Miro was used as a club because of
the legs, which formed a handle shape. If it wasn't held by hand,
dancers wore it around their necks during feasts. The Moko Miro would
also be placed at the doorway to protect the household from harm. It
would be hanging from the roof or set in the ground. The original form
had eyes made from white shells, and the pupils were made of obsidian.[112]
- Moai kavakava are male carvings and the Moai Paepae are female carvings.[113]
These grotesque and highly detailed human figures carved from Toromiro
pine, represent ancestors. Sometimes these statues were used for
fertility rites. Usually, they are used for harvest celebrations; "the
first picking of fruits was heaped around them as offerings". When the
statues were not used, they would be wrapped in bark cloth and kept at
home. There were a few times that are reported when the islanders would
pick up the figures like dolls and dance with them.[113]
The earlier figures are rare and generally depict a male figure with an
emaciated body and a goatee. The figures' ribs and vertebrae are
exposed and many examples show carved glyphs on various parts of the
body but more specifically, on the top of the head. The female figures,
rarer than the males, depict the body as flat and often with the
female's hand lying across the body. The figures, although some were
quite large, were worn as ornamental pieces around a tribesman's neck.
The more figures worn, the more important the man. The figures have a
shiny patina developed from constant handling and contact with human skin.[citation needed]
- Ao, a large dancing paddle
21st-century culture
The Rapanui sponsor an annual festival, the Tapati, held since 1975 around the beginning of February to celebrate Rapa Nui culture. The islanders also maintain a national football team and three discos in the town of Hanga Roa. Other cultural activities include a musical tradition that combines South American and Polynesian influences and woodcarving.
Sports
The Chilean leg of the Red Bull Cliff Diving World Series takes place on the Island of Rapa Nui.
Tapati Festival
Tapati Rapa Nui festival ("week festival" in the local language) is
an annual two-week long festival celebrating Easter Island culture.[114]
The Tapati is centered around a competition between two families/ clans
competing in various competitions to earn points. The winning team has
their candidate crowned 'queen' of the island for the next year. The
competitions are a way to maintain and celebrate traditional cultural
activities such as cooking, jewelry-making, woodcarving, and canoeing.[115]
Demographics
2012 census
Population at the 2012 census was 5,761 (increased from 3,791 in 2002).[116] In 2002, 60% were persons of indigenous Rapa Nui origin, 39% were mainland Chileans (or their Easter Island-born descendants) of European (mostly Spanish) or mestizo
(mixed European and indigenous Chilean Amerindian) origin and Easter
Island-born mestizos of European and Rapa Nui and/or native Chilean
descent, and the remaining 1% were indigenous mainland Chilean Amerindians (or their Easter Island-born descendants).[117] As of 2012 the population density on Easter Island was only 35/km2 (91/sq mi).
- Real life in Rapa Nui
Polynesian dancing with feather costumes is on the tourist itinerary.
Front view of the Catholic Church, Hanga Roa
Interior view of the Catholic Church in Hanga Roa
Demographic history
The 1982 population was 1,936. The increase in population in the last census was partly caused by the arrival of people of European
or mixed European and Native American descent from the Chilean
mainland. However, most married a Rapa Nui spouse. Around 70% of the
population were natives. Estimates of the pre-European population range
from 7–17,000. Easter Island's all-time low of 111 inhabitants was
reported in 1877. Out of these 111 Rapa Nui, only 36 had descendants,
and all of today's Rapa Nui claim descent from those 36.
Languages
Easter Island's traditional language is Rapa Nui, an Eastern Polynesian language, sharing some similarities with Hawaiian and Tahitian. However, as in the rest of mainland Chile, the official language used is Spanish.
It is supposed[118] that the 2,700 indigenous Rapa Nui
living in the island have a certain degree of knowledge of their
traditional language; however, census data does not exist on the primary
known and spoken languages among Easter Island's inhabitants and there
are recent claims that the number of fluent speakers is as low as 800.[119] Indeed, Rapa Nui has been suffering processes of decline and Hispanicization,
because the island is under the jurisdiction of Chile and is now home
to a number of Chilean continentals, most of whom speak only Spanish.
For this reason, most Rapa Nui children now grow up speaking Spanish,
and those who do learn Rapa Nui begin learning it later in life.[120] Even with efforts to revitalize the language,[121] Ethnologue has established that Rapa Nui is currently a threatened language.[118]
Easter Island's indigenous Rapa Nui toponymy
has survived with few Spanish additions or replacements, a fact that
has been attributed in part to the survival of the Rapa Nui language.[122]
Administration and legal status
Easter Island shares with Juan Fernández Islands the constitutional status of "special territory" of Chile, granted in 2007. As of 2011 a special charter for the island was under discussion in the Chilean Congress.
Administratively, the island is a province of the Valparaíso Region and contains a single commune (comuna). Both the province and the commune are called Isla de Pascua and encompass the whole island and its surrounding islets and rocks, plus Isla Salas y Gómez, some 380 km (240 mi) to the east. The provincial governor is appointed by the President of the Republic.[123] The municipal administration is located in Hanga Roa, led by a mayor and a six-member municipal council, all directly elected for a four-year mandate.
In August 2018, a law took effect prohibiting non-residents from staying on the island for more than 30 days.[124]
Since 1966 rape, sexual abuse and crimes against property in
Easter Island have lower sentences than corresponding offences in
mainland Chile.[125]
Notable people
- Laura Alarcón Rapu, governor (since 2018)
- Angata, native catechist and prophetess who led a 1914 rebellion
- Sebastian Englert, missionary and ethnologist
- Eugène Eyraud, missionary
- Thor Heyerdahl, ethnographer
- Melania Carolina Hotu Hey, governor (2006–2010, 2015–2018)
- Marta Raquel Hotus Tuki, governor (2014–2015)
- Riro Kāinga, last person to hold title of king and rule before Chilean consolidation
- Kings of Easter Island
- Hotu Matuʻa, island founder
- William Mulloy, archaeologist
- Nga'ara, one of the last ‘ariki
- Jacobo Hey Paoa, first Rapa Nui male to earn a law degree and become an attorney
- Pedro Pablo Edmunds Paoa, mayor and former governor
- Juan Edmunds Rapahango, former mayor
- Hippolyte Roussel, missionary
- Katherine Routledge, archaeologist and anthropologist
- Mahani Teave, classical pianist
- Atamu Tekena, missionary installed King who ceded island to Chile
- José Fati Tepano, first Rapa Nui male to serve as a titular judge upon completing the training imparted by the Judicial Academy of Chile
- Juan Tepano, indigenous leader and cultural informant
Transportation
Easter Island is served by Mataveri International Airport, with jet service (currently Boeing 787s) from LATAM Chile and, seasonally, subsidiaries such as LATAM Perú.
See also
References
"Censo 2017". National Statistics Institute (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 11 May 2018. Retrieved 11 May 2018.
Bibliography
- Diamond, Jared (2005). Collapse. How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed. New York: Viking. ISBN 978-0-14-303655-5.
- Fischer, Steven Roger (1995). "Preliminary Evidence for Cosmogonic Texts in Rapanui's Rongorongo Inscriptions". Journal of the Polynesian Society (104): 303–21.
- Fischer, Steven Roger (1997). Glyph-breaker: A Decipherer's Story. New York: Copernicus/Springer-Verlag.
- Fischer, Steven Roger (1997). RongoRongo, the Easter Island Script: History, Traditions, Texts. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-823710-5.
- Heyerdahl, Thor (1961). Thor Heyerdahl; Edwin N. Ferdon Jr. (eds.). The Concept of Rongorongo Among the Historic Population of Easter Island. Stockholm: Forum.
- Heyerdahl, Thor (1958). Aku-Aku; The 1958 Expedition to Easter Island.
- McLaughlin, Shawn (2007). The Complete Guide to Easter Island. Los Osos: Easter Island Foundation.
- Metraux, Alfred (1940). "Ethnology of Easter Island". Bernice P. Bishop Museum Bulletin (160).
- Pinart, Alphonse (1877). "Voyage à l'Ile de Pâques (Océan Pacifique)". Le Tour du Monde; Nouveau Journal des Voyags. 36: 225.
- Routledge, Katherine (1919). The Mystery of Easter Island. The story of an expedition. London. ISBN 978-0-404-14231-5.
- Steadman, David (2006). Extinction and Biogeography in Tropical Pacific Birds. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-77142-7.
Further reading
- Altman, Ann M. (2004). Early
Visitors to Easter Island 1864–1877 (translations of the accounts of
Eugène Eyraud, Hippolyte Roussel, Pierre Loti and Alphonse Pinart; with
an Introduction by Georgia Lee). Los Osos: Easter Island Foundation.
- Englert, Sebastian F. (1970). Island at the Center of the World. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
- Erickson, Jon D.; Gowdy, John M. (2000). "Resource Use, Institutions, and Sustainability: A Tale of Two Pacific Island Cultures". Land Economics. 76 (3): 345–354. doi:10.2307/3147033. JSTOR 3147033.
- Kjellgren, Eric (2001). Splendid isolation: art of Easter Island. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 9781588390110.
- Lee, Georgia (1992). The Rock Art of Easter Island. Symbols of Power, Prayers to the Gods. Los Angeles: The Institute of Archaeology Publications. ISBN 978-0-917956-74-4.
- Pendleton, Steve; Maddock, David (2014). Collecting Easter Island – Stamps and Postal History. London: Pacific Islands Study Circle. ISBN 978-1-899833-22-1.
- Shepardson, Britton (2013). Moai: a New Look at Old Faces. Santiago: Rapa Nui Press. ISBN 978-9569337000.
- Thomson,
William J. (1891). "Te Pito te Henua, or Easter Island. Report of the
United States National Museum for the Year Ending June 30, 1889". Annual Reports of the Smithsonian Institution for 1889: 447–552.in Internet Archive
- van Tilburg, Jo Anne (1994). Easter Island: Archaeology, Ecology and Culture. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 978-0-7141-2504-6.
- Vergano, Dan. "Were rats behind Easter Island mystery?" USA Today (15 November 2009)
External links
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Articles and topics related to Easter Island |
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In mythology of Andean civilizations of South America, the amaro, amaru (quechua) or katari (aymara) is a mythical serpent or dragon, most associated with the ...Missing: Ama | Must include:
Ama Aramu Muru is an abandoned stone carving in Peru, near Lake Titicaca, known as “Gate of the Gods”. It was discovered in the early 1990s and is believed to be ...Missing: Ama | Must include:
Ama Túpac Amaru
(1545 – 24 September 1572) was the last monarch (Sapa Inca) of the
Neo-Inca State, the remnants of the Inca Empire in Vilcabamba, Peru.
Amaru may refer to: Contents. 1 Places; 2 People; 3 Other; 4 See also. Places[edit]. Amaru, Buzău, a village in Buzău County, Romania; Amaru, Rimatara, a village on the island of Rimatara, French Polynesia; Amaru Marka Wasi, an archaeological site in Peru ... Help · Learn to edit · Community portal · Recent changes · Upload file ...Missing: Ama | Must include:
Ama The
Inca Empire also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire, was the
largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The administrative, political
and military center of the empire was in the city of Cusco. The Inca
civilization arose from the Peruvian highlands sometime in the early ... Ama sua: Do not steal; Ama llulla: Do not lie; Ama quella: Do not be lazy ...
The network is made of Peruvian independent journalism websites including OjoPúblico and IDL-Reporteros alongside eight regional radio stations within Peru.Missing: Amaru | Must include:
Amaru In 1760, he married Micaela Bastidas Puyucahua of Afro-Peruvian and indigenous descent. Tupac Amaru II inherited the caciqueship, or hereditary chiefdom of ...Missing: Ama | Must include:
Ama
